Chemistry Flashcards
the Mulliken scale averages electron affinity and ionization energy to find this
electronegativity
highest value is fluorine with 4.0 (Pauling scale)
electronegativity
difference between atoms determines bond polarity
electronegativity
high values for this quantity increase the chemical shift of adjacent protons in the field effect
electronegativity
high values for this quantity increase acidity in the inductive effect
electronegativity
the effective nuclear charge over the square of the covalent radius (Allred-Rochow scale)
electronegativity
formal charge is more positive than the oxidation state at high values
electronegativity
an atom’s ability to attract electrons
electronegativity
Van Deemter equation is used to figure out the height of a theoretical column
chromatography
thin-layer form of this process uses a silica plate inside a beaker
chromatography
compounds are separated by their size through a stationary phase
chromatography
uses stationary and mobile phases to separate mixtures
chromatography
ion exchange and size exclusion forms
chromatography
substances can be characterized by their retention factor
chromatography
the gas form is often paired with flame ionization detection (FID) or mass spectroscopy (MS)
chromatography
relies on differences in partition coefficients between compounds
chromatography
burettes are commonly used
titration
lab technique is used to find an unknown substance’s concentration
titration
phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue are often used in the acid-base form
titration
the equivalence point is the inflection point on one of these curves
titration
complexometric ones often use EDTA
titration
Karl Fischer type uses electrolysis to determine water content
titration
curves contain a buffer region
titration
redox variety often uses permanganate
titration
a volatile substance is constantly boiling and condensing back into the reaction vessel
reflux
azeotropes cannot be separated by this process
distillation
often utilizes a Liebig or Vigreux condenser
distillation
the number of theoretical plates needed for this is predicted by the Fenske equation
distillation
the fractional type is used in oil refinement
distillation
theoretical plates are the optimal number of equilibrium stages in this technique
distillation
a sample is ionized, fragmented, then passed through electromagnetic fields to separate
mass spectroscopy (MS)
separates ‘pieces’ based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z)
mass spectroscopy (MS)
includes a base peak (the peak of highest intensity)
mass spectroscopy (MS)
matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) or electrospray ionization (ESI) used
mass spectroscopy (MS)
proton and carbon-13 types are most common
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
nuclei oscillate between spin states (Larmor precession)
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
tetramethylsilane (TMS) used as a reference
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
nuclei undergo chemical shift
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
peaks can be “split” into several peaks due to J-coupling
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
the theoretical basis for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medicine
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
involves vibrational modes called “stretching,” “wagging,” and “scissoring”
infrared spectroscopy (IR)
the carbonyl peak occurs at around 1700 cm-1
infrared spectroscopy (IR)
requires bonds to be polarizable
infrared spectroscopy (IR)
includes a fingerprint region below 1500 cm-1
infrared spectroscopy (IR)
aromatic hydrocarbon with formula C6H6
benzene
ortho, meta, and para position
benzene
phenol, aniline, toluene, and xylene are derivatives of this compound
benzene
the structure came to Auguste Kekulé in a dream (a snake eating its tail)
benzene
flat structure proven by Kathleen Lonsdale
benzene
substituents are added onto this compound in a Friedel-Crafts reaction
benzene
uses a Bunsen burner to view emission spectra
flame test
cobalt blue glass used to filter of the sodium D line
flame test
lithium = red
flame test
strontium = red
flame test
light purple (lilac) = potassium
flame test
barium = green
flame test
copper = blue/green
flame test
calculates the heat or enthalpy change of a chemical or physical process
calorimetry
coffee cups and bomb-type devices used
calorimetry
uses the equation q equals mc delta T
calorimetry
measures light absorbed by chromophores including a lambda-max
UV-Vis spectroscopy
cuvettes used in the technique
UV-Vis spectroscopy
used for Beer’s law experiments
UV-Vis spectroscopy
Woodward-Fieser rules used to calculate lambda-max
UV-Vis spectroscopy
separates mixtures based on their relative solubilities in two immiscible solvents
liquid-liquid extraction
typically performed in a separatory funnel
liquid-liquid extraction
made of repeating monomers
polymers
nylon, rayon, teflon, kevlar are types of these
polymers
step-growth and chain-growth methods
polymers
AIBN is a radical initiator for chain-growth
polymers
equals internal energy plus pressure times volume
enthalpy
symbolized H
enthalpy
negative value = exothermic
enthalpy
positive value = endothermic
enthalpy
the change in this quantity for a reaction is independent of the number of steps according to Hess’s Law
enthalpy
stays constant in the Joule-Thomson effect
enthalpy
the Born-Haber cycle can be used to calculate this for a lattice
enthalpy
k-sub-B times the natural log of the number of microstates according to Boltzmann
entropy
measure of a system’s disorder
entropy
values of zero for this quantity are defined by the third law of thermodynamics
entropy
is increasing according to the second law of thermodynamics
entropy
negative value = spontaneous
Gibbs free energy
positive value = nonspontaneous
Gibbs free energy
value of zero = equilibrium
Gibbs free energy
plotted with temperature in the Ellingham Diagram
Gibbs free energy
only depend on the number, not the type, of solute particles
colligative properties
include osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation and freezing point depression
colligative properties
examples of these substances include gels, aerosols, and emulsions
colloids
the scattering of light in these substances is known as the Tyndall effect
colloids
milk is an example
colloids
may sediment out via flocculation
colloids
the electrical potential at the double layers of these compounds is known as the zeta potential
colloids
gives a broad peak around 3300 cm-1 in IR spectroscopy
alcohols
reacted with carboxylic acids in Fischer esterification
alcohols
functional group symbolized -OH
alcohols
ranges from 0 to 14
pH
acids have a value less than 7
pH
bases have a value greater than 7
pH
buffers resist large changes in this value
pH
plotted against chemical potential in a Pourbaix diagram
pH
negative log of hydrogen ion concentration
pH
calculated by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation (buffers)
pH
Arnold Beckman invented a device that uses a glass electrode to measure this
pH
reduce activation energy and speed up chemical reactions
catalyst
not consumed in a chemical reaction
catalyst
Iron oxide acts as one in the Haber-Bosch Process
catalyst
zeolites can behave like these materials during the refinement of petroleum
catalyst
can be ‘poisoned’ by adding sulphur
catalyst
ones named for Zeigler and Natta, Raney, Lindlar, Grubbs
catalyst
vanadium acts as one in the contact process
catalyst
consist of a regular repeating arrangement of atoms
crystal lattice
often grow around a “seed”
crystal lattice
characterized by x-ray diffraction according to Bragg’s law
crystal lattice
symbolized uppercase K or Kc or Keq or Kp or Ksp
equilibrium constant
the rate of a forward reaction equals the rate of a backwards reaction
equilibrium
concentrations do not change
equilibrium
powers of RT convert between Kc and Kp
equilibrium constant
solids and liquids do not contribute to this
equilibrium constant
calculated by the law of mass action
equilibrium constant
will respond to stress according to Le Chatelier’s Principle
equilibrium constant
states that a system in chemical equilibrium will shift to counteract change
Le Chatelier’s principle
the van’t Hoff equation applies this concept to thermodynamics
Le Chatelier’s principle
different arrangements of atoms but the same molecular formula
isomers
glucose and fructose are “structural” types of these
isomers
cis’ and ‘trans’ identify “stereo” forms of these
isomers
a molecule cannot be superimposed on its mirror image
chirality
derived from the Greek for “handedness”
chirality
use Cahn-Ingold-Prelog sequence rules
chirality
molecules with this property are designated as R or S
chirality
enantiomers exhibit this property
chirality
process which splits molecules using an electric current
electrolysis
used in the Castner-Kellner process and Hall-Heroult process
electrolysis
100 degrees celsius for water
boiling point
Duhring’s plot
boiling point
an increase in this quantity is related to molality by the ebullioscopic content
boiling point
used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
related to the Charlot equation
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
relates pH to pKa for a weak acid
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
regions in which electrons are most likely to be found
orbitals
split by ligands in crystal field theory (d specifically)
orbitals
s, p, d, and f forms
orbitals
molecular types have a HOMO and LUMO
orbitals
“hybrid” forms such as sp2 and sp3
orbitals
filling governed by the Aufbau principle, Pauli Exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule
orbitals
head-on overlap forms sigma bonds
orbitals
side-on overlap forms pi bonds (p specifically)
orbitals
differ in azimuthal quantum numbers
orbitals
spherical orbital type
s orbitals
orbitals labeled x, y, and z
p orbitals
transition metals have partially filled orbitals of this type
d orbitals
split into t-sub-2g and e-sub-g by ligands
d orbitals
occurs when atomic orbitals combine to distribute their energy more evenly
hybridization
atomic orbitals mix to form bonds in this process
hybridization
kinetics equation that calculates reaction rate
Arrhenius equation
the product of steric factor and the collision frequency gives the pre-exponential factor which is multiplied by e to the minus E-a over RT
Arrhenius equation
responsible for the high specific heat of water, as well as its cohesive and adhesive nature
hydrogen bonds
solid, liquid, and gas exist at thermal equilibrium
triple point
demonstrates a nonlinear relationship between the temperature and vapor pressure of a system
Clausius-Clapeyron equation
the partial pressure of a gas is equal to its mole fraction times vapor pressure
Raoult’s law
these mixtures cannot be separated by distillation
azeotropes
96% ethanol and 4% water forms the classic type of these
azeotropes
the endpoint of the liquid-gas boundary in a phase diagram
critical point
a substance is neither a liquid or a gas, but a homogenous mixture of both
critical point
a solid changes directly into gas
sublimation
phase change seen in dry ice
sublimation
allows iodine crystals to expose latent fingerprints
sublimation
“Cold finger” purification begins with this process
sublimation
zero celsius for water
melting point
phase transition directly from a gas to a solid
deposition
opposite of sublimation
deposition
used in a voltaic or galvanic cell to maintain charge balance
salt bridge
electrode where oxidation occurs
anode
electrode where reduction occurs
cathode
reaction in which electrons are lost
oxidation
reaction in which electrons are gained
reduction
eactions that involve the transfer of electrons
redox (oxidation-reduction)
nuclear process that emits a particle made of two protons and two neutrons
alpha decay
Americium-241 undergoes this process in smoke detectors
alpha decay
particle utilized by Rutherford (with Geiger and Marsden) to do the gold foil experiment
alpha
particle that is a helium nucleus
alpha
nuclear process that emits an electron
beta decay
nuclear process mediated by the weak nuclear force
beta decay
carbon-14 undergoes this type of radioactive decay
beta decay
