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A Intro to Neuro > Chemical Control of Brain and Behavior > Flashcards

Chemical Control of Brain and Behavior Flashcards

1
Q

Overview of this chapter

A
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2
Q

Overview of diffuse modulatory systems

A
  • Found only in CNS
  • Highly divergent axonal projections
  • Defined by the NT they use
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3
Q

What is the purpose of diffuse modulatory systems?

A

To coordinate activation states of neurons encompassing broad brain regions

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4
Q

Core neurons in the diffuse modulatory systems?

A

Small set (several thousand)

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5
Q

Origin of neurons in diffuse modulatory systems

A

Most arise from the brainstem nuclei

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6
Q

Most neurons in the diffuse modulatory systems arise in the ___

A

Brainstem nuclei

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7
Q

Axons of neurons in diffuse modulatory systems

A

Core neurons give rise to widely divergent axons that can form up to 100,000 synapses, each spreading throughout the brain

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8
Q

NT release in diffuse modulatory systems

A

Diffuse NT release affecting many neurons, and may also regulate NTs into extracellular fluid so they can mediate effects beyond a single synaptic cleft

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9
Q

Describe receptor activation in diffuse modulatory systems

A

Typically metabotropic receptors in the CNS

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10
Q

Classification of diffuse modulatory systems

A

Can be classified by NT (name of system is (NT)-ergic)

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11
Q

Diagram of projections in noradrenergic (NE) system

A
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12
Q

Origin of neurons noradrenergic system

A

Locus coeruleus

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13
Q

Projection of neurons in noradrenergic system

A

Throughout brain, including cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum (extremely wide projections)

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14
Q

Purposes of the noradrenergic system

A
  • Locus coeruleus neurons strongly activated by novel, unexpected, nonpainful stimuli in the environment
  • When activated, may generally increase brain responsiveness and increase speed/efficiency of information processing
  • May be involved in sleep/wake cycles
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15
Q

NE system and stimulands

A

The noradrenergic system’s efficacy is enhanced by stimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamine

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16
Q

Peter the tiny horse is trying to severely impede the noradrenergic system by targeting one of its main nuclei.

Which would he target and why? What general effects would you see?

a) Raphe nuclei, slowed eating
b) Periventricular Hypothalamus, less sleep
c) Locus Coeruleus, generally less excitation
d) Substantia Nigra, less movement

A

Answer: C, this is the source nucleus for the Noradrenergic System

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17
Q

Diagram of projections in serotonergic (5-HT) system

A
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18
Q

Origin of neurons in the serotonergic system

A

Raphe nuclei throughout brainstem

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19
Q

Projections of neurons in serotonergic system

A

Large projections to forebrain & spinal cord

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20
Q

Purposes of the serotonergic system

A
  • Rostral raphe nuclei innervate forebrain
    ○ Fires most during wakefulness and least during sleep
    ○ Controls sleep/wake cycles
  • Caudal raphe nuclei innervate the spinal cord
    ○ Modulates pain
  • Works with locus coeruleus for reticular activating system:
    ○ Arouses and awakens forebrain
  • Control of mood: SSRIs are effective drugs against clinical depression
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21
Q

When do the raphe nuclei innervating the forebrain fire the most and least? (Serotonergic system)

A

Fire most during wakefulness and least during sleep

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22
Q

Rostral raphe nuclei innervate the ___

A

Forebrain

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23
Q

Caudal raphe nuclei innervate the ___

A

Spinal cord

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24
Q

Serotonergic system and hallucinogens such as LSD

A

Hallucinogens such as LSD are 5-HT agonists:
- LSD binds to 5-HT receptors on raphe nuclei neurons → inhibits raphe firing → reduces outflow of serotonergic system (this also happens during dreaming!

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25
Q

Diagram of projections in dopaminergic (DA) system

A
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26
Q

Origin of neurons in dopaminergic system

A

Substantia nigra

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27
Q

Projections of neurons in DA system

A

Striatum (caudate and putamen)

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28
Q

Purpose of DA system

A

Initiate voluntary movement (degenerates during Parkinson’s), especially in response to environmental stimuli

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29
Q

Origin of neurons in mesocorticolimbic system (DA)

A

Ventral tegemental area (VTA)

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30
Q

Projection of neurons mesocorticolimbic system (DA)

A

Frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and parts of the limbic system (emotional nervous system)

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31
Q

Purpose of mesocorticolimbic system

A
  • Reward system that reinforces adaptive behaviors
  • Normal rewarding/reinforced behaviors and addictive drugs all increase DA release from VTA to nucleus accumbens
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32
Q

Stimulants and mesocorticolimbic system

A

Stimulants enhance the effect of this system (along with noradrenergic)

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33
Q

Two parts of the cholinergic (ACh) system

A
  • Basal forebrain complex
  • Pontomesencephalotegmental complex
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34
Q

Diagram of projections in basal forebrain complex of cholinergic system

A
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35
Q

Origin of neurons in basal forebrain complex

A
  • Cholinergic neurons scattered around forebrain (medial and ventral to basal ganglia)
  • E.g. medial septal nuclei, basal nucleus of Meynert
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36
Q

Projections of neurons in basal forebrain complex

A
  • Medial septal nuclei innervate hippocampus
  • Basal nuclei of Meynert innervates neocortex
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37
Q

Medial septal nuclei innervate ___

A

Hippocampus

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38
Q

Basal nucleus of Meynert innervates ___

A

Neocortex

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39
Q

Purpose of basal forebrain complex

A
  • Mainly unknown but system is among the first to degenerate in Alzheimer’s
  • Implicated in regulating general brain excitability during arousal and sleep-wake cycles
  • May be involved in learning and memory formation
40
Q

Origin of neurons complex

A

Cells in pons and midbrain tegmentum

41
Q

Projections and purpose of pontomesencephalotegmental system

A
  • To dorsal thalamus, where it (along with serotonergic and noradrenergic systems) regulates excitability of sensory relay nuclei
  • To telencephalon to provide cholineric link between brainstem and basal forebrain complexes
42
Q

Summary table of diffuse modulatory systems

A
43
Q

Your friend feeds you what looks to be an innocent-looking sandwich. However, she later reveals that it actually contains LSD and that you’ve been entered into her top-secret science experiment.

Before you enter the nether world, what effects would you warn your friend about?

a) LSD acts on the substantia nigra to promote increased sleepiness, so you’re going to enter a period of diminished activity
b) LSD will interfere with your noradrenergic signalling and make you more irritable
c) LSD acts as a stimulant that overall increases your activity and ability to perceive your surroundings
d) LSD is a 5-HT agonist, and will inhibit raphe nuclei firing and reduce outflow of the dopaminergic system
e) None of the above

A

E. “D” would be correct if dopaminergic is replaced with serotonergic

44
Q

Oh no! Something is wrong in my housemate’s diffuse modulatory systems, and she no longer has normal sleep/wake cycles. Choose all of the following areas that might be damaged.

a) Locus coeruleus
b) Raphe nucleus
c) Substantia Nigra
d) Basal forebrain complex
e) A,B,C
f) None of the above

A

Answer: E
A (noradrenergic system), B (serotonergic system), D (cholinergic system)
ACh, NE, and 5-HT all influence sleep/wake cycles

45
Q

Diagram of hypothalamus

A
46
Q

Lateral and medial hypothalamus

A

Ends projections to brainstem and telencephalon → involved in regulating certain behaviors (more on this later)

47
Q

Periventricular hypothalamus (communicates more with body)

A
  • Receives input from lateral and medial hypothalamus
  • Outflow of ANS (sympathetic vs. parasympathetic) mediates things like fight/flight/freeze response
  • Includes variety of neurons, including supraoptic nucleus (magnocellular secretory neurons) and suprachiasmatic nucleus (circadian rhythms)
  • Also contains neurosecretory neurons involved in pituitary signaling
48
Q

Which of the following best describes the role of the hypothalamus in neuroendocrine communication?

A. It directly secretes all hormones into the bloodstream without involving any other gland.
B. It integrates signals from the nervous system and regulates hormone release via the pituitary gland.
C. It only controls digestive enzymes and is not involved in hormone regulation.
D. It functions exclusively as a receptor for peripheral nervous system signals.

A

B. It integrates signals from the nervous system and regulates hormone release via the pituitary gland.

49
Q

Diagram of pituitary gland

A
50
Q

Location of pituitary gland

A

Found at base of brain (right above roof of mouth)

51
Q

How does the hypothalamus control the two lobes of the pituitary?

A
  • Parvocellular secretory neuron from hypothalamus → anterior lobe of pituitary
  • Magnocellular secretory neuron from hypothalamus → posterior lobe of pituitary

Parvo ≠ posterior

52
Q

Summary table of anterior and posterior pituitary

A
53
Q

Which of the following correctly distinguishes the role of parvocellular and magnocellular cells in the pituitary gland?

A. Parvocellular cells regulate short-term reflexes, while magnocellular cells exclusively control metabolism.
B. Parvocellular cells release hormones into the posterior pituitary, while magnocellular cells act on the anterior pituitary.
C. Parvocellular cells release regulatory hormones into the portal system for the anterior pituitary, while magnocellular cells release hormones directly into the bloodstream from the posterior pituitary.
D. Both parvocellular and magnocellular cells function exclusively within the anterior pituitary

A

C. Parvocellular cells release regulatory hormones into the portal system for the anterior pituitary, while magnocellular cells release hormones directly into the bloodstream from the posterior pituitary.

54
Q

Vole species

A
  • Prairie voles are monogamous (prairie = pair)
  • Montane voles do not pair (mon means mono, alone ):
55
Q

Receptors in female and male prairie voles

A
  • Female prairie voles have higher oxytocin receptor density in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex (PFC)
  • Male prairie voles have higher vasopressin receptor density in the ventral pallidum (VP)
56
Q

Female prairie voles have higher ___ receptor density in the ___ and ___

A

Oxytocin, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex

57
Q

Male prairie voles have higher ___ receptor density in the ___

A

Vasopressin, ventral pallidum (VP)

Mv

58
Q

Manipulating vole behavior

A
  • Oxytocin receptor antagonists in nucleus accumbens can prevent partner preference in F prairie voles
  • Administering vasopressin before a male meets a new female will make him strongly prefer her
  • Vasopressin receptor antagonists in VP of M prairie voles before mating prevents pair-bonding
  • Adding vasopressin receptors can make montane voles monogamous
59
Q

What manipulation can make montane voles monogamous?

A

Adding vasopressin receptors

60
Q

What manipulation can prevent partner preference in female prairie voles?

A

Administering oxytocin receptor antagonists in nucleus accumbens

61
Q

What manipulation can make male prairie voles strongly prefer their partner?

A

Administering vasopressin before a male meets a new female will make him strongly prefer her

62
Q

What manipulation prevents pair bonding in male prairie voles?

A

Administering vasopressin antagonists in VP

63
Q

Mechanisms of ADH

A
  1. Body is deprived of water
  2. 2 effects
    a. Blood volume decreases → sensed by pressure receptors in cardiovascular system
    b. Blood salt concentration increases → sensed by salt concentration-sensitive cells in hypothalamus)
  3. Vasopressin-containing magnocellular secretory neurons release vasopressin into posterior lobe
  4. Vasopressin acts on kidney to increase water retention and reduce urine production
64
Q

Where are the osmoreceptors that detect salt concentration?

A

Hypothalamus

65
Q

What is the overall effect of vasopressin on the kidney?

A

It acts on the kidney to increase water retention and reduce urine production

66
Q

HPA axis diagram

A
67
Q

HPA axis flow chart with feedback

A
68
Q

Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis

A
  • Involves the steroid/glucocorticoid cortisol (anterior pituitary hormone)
  • Sequence:
    ○ Hypothalamus releases
    ○ Pituitary releases ACTH to adrenal cortex (on kidney)
    ○ Adrenal cortex releases cortisol into the bloodstream
69
Q

Negative feedback in HPA axis

A

Cortisol inhibits release of CRH (from hypothalamus) and ACTH (from anterior pituitary)

70
Q

How can chronic stress throw off the HPA axis?

A
  • Elevated levels of cortisol have long-term effects:
  • Chronic stress and chronic cortisol release cause decay of hippocampal dendrites
  • Chronic stress results in cell death and reduction in hippocampal size
71
Q

HPA axis and anxiety disorders

A
  • The hippocampus regulates HPA axis and anxiety disorders
  • Normal pathway: Amygdala excites HPA axis → HPA axis releases cortisol → cortisol excites hippocampus → hippocampus inhibits HPA axis
  • Chronic stress can eliminate this negative feedback → may be basis for stress disorders
72
Q

Diagram of hippocampus-HPA-amygdala connection in normal state

A
73
Q

Diagram of hippocampus-HPA-amygdala connection in stressed state

A
74
Q

Key features of ANS (autonomic nervous system)

A
  • Commands every muscle that isn’t skeletal muscle fibers
  • Actions of ANS are multiple, widespread, and relatively slow
  • Balances synaptic excitation and inhibition for widely coordinated and graded control
75
Q

What parts of the body does the ANS interact with?

A

Secretory glands, heart and blood vessels, bronchi of lungs, digestive system, excretory system, genitals and reproductive organs, immune system

76
Q

ANS diagram

A
77
Q

Somatic motor vs. ANS control

A
  • Somatic motor control is monosynaptic (alpha motor neuron → muscle fibers)
  • ANS control is disynaptic (preganglionic fiber from CNS → synapses onto autonomic ganglion, which sends out postganglionic fiber → smooth muscle/cardiac muscle/glands)
78
Q

Is ANS control mono- or di-synaptic?

A

Disynaptic

79
Q

What parts of the brain are important for autonomic control?

A

Hypothalamus (mainly) and nucleus of solitary tract in medulla are important for autonomic control (regulator of autonomic preganglionic neurons)

80
Q

Table comparing sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

A
81
Q

Features of sympathetic NS

A
  • From middle 1/3 of spinal cord
    sympathetic chain (intermediolateral gray matter)
  • Preganglionic fibers release ACh onto autonomic ganglion
  • Ganglion further from target
  • Postganglionic fibers release NE onto target
  • Innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells
82
Q

Similarities between sympathetic NS and parasympathetic NS

A
  • In both, preganglionic fibers release ACh onto autonomic ganglion
  • Both innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells
83
Q

Features of parasympathetic NS

A
  • From brainstem and sacral spinal cord
  • Preganglionic fibers release ACh onto autonomic ganglion
  • Ganglion closer to target
  • Postganglionic fibers release ACh onto target (muscarinic)
84
Q

Table of effects of sympathetic vs. parasympathetic NS

A
85
Q

Which of the following statements are TRUE about the Parasympathetic vs Sympathetic nervous systems?

a) Preganglionic fibers release ACh onto autonomic ganglia in both systems
b) The ganglion is closer to the CNS in the Sympathetic whereas it’s further away in the
Parasympathetic
c) Both types of ganglia release norepinephrine
d) These systems innervate somatic muscles and gland cells
e) The effects of these systems are opposing

A

Answer: A, B, E - what’s wrong about the other answers?

86
Q

Does this statement describe the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS?

Ganglia are further from target

A

Sympathetic

87
Q

Does this statement describe the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS?

Ganglia are closer to target

A

Parasympathetic

88
Q

Does this statement describe the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS?

Postganglionic fibers release ACh onto target (muscarinic)

A

Parasympathetic

89
Q

Does this statement describe the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS?

Postganglionic fibers release NE onto target

A

Sympathetic

90
Q

Does this statement describe the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS?

From brainstem and sacral spinal cord

A

Parasympathetic

91
Q

Does this statement describe the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS?

From middle 1/3 of spinal cord sympathetic chain (inermediolateral gray matter)

A

Sympathetic

92
Q

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

a) travels through the blood to the adrenal glands and stimulates the release of cortisol
b) is released into the blood in the posterior pituitary
c) travels through the blood to the anterior pituitary triggering the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
d) binds to neurons in the hypothalamus and causes an increase in feeding behavior

A

c) travels through the blood to the anterior pituitary triggering the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

93
Q

Anterior pituitary hormones

a) are released from axon terminals
b) are released in response to the presence of releasing factors
c) include glutamate and GABA
d) stimulate parvocellular neurons in the hypothalamus

A

b) are released in response to the presence of releasing factors

94
Q

Blocking acetylcholine receptors in the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system would cause

a) Decreased activity in sympathetic axons
b) Decreased activity in parasympathetic axons
c) Decreased activity in motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle
d) More than one of the above
e) All of the above

A

d) More than one of the above

a and b are both correct because ACh is used in both the symp and parasymp systems

95
Q

Hypophysiotropic hormones are released into the ___

A

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

A Intro to Neuro (22 decks)

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