Chem/Phys Flashcards
kilo
10^3 (k)
Mega
10^6 (M)
Giga
10^9 (G)
Tera
10^12 (T)
hecto
10^2(h)
deca
10^1 (da)
Deci
10^-1 (d)
centi
10^-2 (c)
milli
10^-3 (m)
Micro
10^-6 (μ)
nano
10^-9 (n)
Pico
10^-12 (p)
horizonal projectile motion=
cos
vf and vi formula with a and change in x
vf^2=vi^2+2achange in x
newton’s laws:
- objects at rest/motion will stay at rest/motion 2. F=ma 3. equal and opposite forces
4 fundamental forces
- gravity 2. electromagnetic force (dont need to know these) 3. strong nuclear force 4. weak nuclear force
center of mass
(x1m1+x2m2+x3m3)/(m1+m2+m3)
Fstatic (the maximum it can be, but if less than max then it is opp of force applied to move the object)
(coefficient of friction)(normal force)
for gravity questions g=
m1m2/(r^2)
centripetal acceleration
v^2/r
Hooke’s law: force needed to compress/stretch a string by x is
F=kx
torque
F(d)sin() angle between force and lever arm
work=
F(d)cos() angle between force and horizontal unit=joules=1 N(m)= (kgxm^2)/s^2
mechanical advantage of ramps vs pulley
less force, same work mechanical advantage= length of incline/height of incline
power
work/time units: W=1 J/s kg⋅m2⋅s−3
for projectile motion trig
angle formed with the x axis vx=vcos() vy=vsin()
velocity
area under a velocity v time graph is displacement
acceleration
area under an acceleration v velocity graph is change in velocity
kinematics equation missing acceleration
d=(vavg)t or d=((change in v)/2)t
kinematics equation missing displacement
vf=vi+at or (change in v)=at
kinematics equation missing final velocity
(change in x)=(vi)t+1/2at^2
kinematics equation missing time
vf^2=vi^2+2a(change in x)
motion on an inclined plane
g perpendicular= gcos() g parallel=gsin()
Kinetic Energy (KE)
1/2mv^2
energy is proportional to
mass
energy and ____ are two ways of talking about the same thing
work
gravitational potential energy
mass x gravity x height or mgh
potential energy of a spring
1/2kx^2
when choosing between using kinematics or conservation of energy, remember that
time is not used in energy calculations
work
kinetic energy final-kinetic energy initial
pressure
force/area units: 1 Pa or 1 N/m^2
work
pressure (change in volume) think of the scenario in which a piston is moving in and out of a cylinder, changing the volume
if a gas doing work to expand a balloon
then the gas has to cool because it is using energy
Fahrenheit =
2(degrees Celsius) + 32
first law of thermodynamics
- Two bodies in thermal equilibrium are at the same T 1.Energy cannot be created or destroyed 2. The total entropy of a system must increase in every spontaneous reaction 3. The entropy of a pure, perfectly crystalline compound at absolute zero (0 K) is zero.
Change U=Q-W
first law of thermodynamics -the total energy change of a system is equal to the transfer of energy into the system via heat minus the work performed BY the system on its surroundings
isolated system-
no exchange of energy or matter
closed system-
no exchange of matter, only exchange of energy
open system
exchange of matter and energy
system gaining energy (heat and work)
heat into system, work by system
system losing energy
heat out of system, work on system
second law of thermodynamics
two ways of saying: 1. if two objects are in thermal contact but not in thermal equilibrium, then heat energy will flow from object with higher temp to object of lower temp 2. the entropy of an isolated system will increase over time
heat
a mechanism of energy transfer and has unites of energy
temperature
static property proportional to kinetic energy
change in volume and change in length are proportional to change in temperature
change in length= (coefficient of thermal expansion constant specific to the substance)(length)(change in temperature)
PV=
NRT
zeroth law of thermodynamics
if one system (A) is in thermal equilibrium with two other systems (B and C), then systems B and C must also be in thermal equilibrium with eachother
lowest kelvin temp possible is
0 degrees (or absolute zero)
isochoric
volume remains constant
isobaric
constant pressure
isothermal
constant temp
adiabatic
process where no heat exchange takes place
density =
mass/volume
remember mass and _____ are not the same
weight
molarity
moles/liters
density of water (need to memorize)
1000 kg/m^3 or 1 kg/L or 1 g/mL or 1 g/cm^3
specific gravity
how dense something is compared to water (bc it is a proportion it does not have units)
pressure=
force/area
pressure on an object submerged in fluid=
(density of object)(g)(depth of submersion)
absolute pressure
hydrostatic prerssure of submerged object + pressure of atmosphere
the percentage of an object that will be submerged in water is proportional to its
specific gravity
buoyant force is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
Pascal’s Principle
The rule that when force is applied to a confined fluid, the increase in pressure is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid. watch video
higher velocity of a fluid
the more likely it is to become turbulent
the flow rate and the pressure drop are proportional to each other
aka a large pressure drop will cause flow rate to increase
poiseulle’s law equation (describes flow of incompressible fluids through a cylinder)
know how variables relate to eachother, so if change one what the effect will be, memorize formula
Bernoulli’s Law
Law stating that pressure in a moving fluid is less when the fluid is moving faster. general ruled of ideal fluids: narrower tube->higher velocity narrower tube->lower pressure higher velocity->lower pressure
venturi effect
narrower tube-> lower pressure (venturi effect), higher velocity higher velocity->lower pressure
laminar flow
a smooth pattern of flow (opposite of turbulent)
relationship between fluid velocity and cross-sectional area of the pipe through which the fluid is travelling
v1A1=v2A2 so fluid velocity and cross-sectional area are inversely proportional
properties of ideal fluids
- the fluid is incompressible 2. the fluid is not viscose 3. the fluid exhibits laminar flow
increased flow speed resulting from being forced through a confined space results in
a zone of low pressure
scalar quantities do not have
a direction (but vector quantities do have direction)
E (magnitude of electric field)=
(kq)/r^2 or F/q The SI units of the electric field are newtons per coulomb (N/C), or volts per meter (V/m)
Work (in an electric field)
W=(kQq)/r
potential energy of a chrarge
(kQq)/r -same as work
V, electric potential
(kQ)/r
Conductivity
A material’s ability to allow heat to flow (sigma)(area/length) -sigma is a constant that is the inverse of p
Resistivity
A material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. p(length/area) -p is a constant
dimagnetic
no unpaired electrons
paramagnetic
Atom or substance containing unpaired electrons and is consequently attracted by a magnetic field
magnetic fields cannot be blocked
but, it can be rerouted with a material that conducts better than the materials around it, ie copper
electric field lines are drawn
from positive to neg charges
an insulator does not have free electrons, but when a charged object is brought near it…
polarization does occur at an atomic level
electric potential energy=
electric potential (charge)
electric potential=
k(Q/r)
1atm
ERROR!
direction a current moves is
opposite that of the actual flow of electrons
voltage
(current)(resistance) V=IR The unit is Volt (V) which is also equal to Joule per Coulomb (J/C) The SI unit of electric current is the ampere The unit of resistance is the ohm
power=
current x voltage P=IV
Kirchoffs laws
- In accordance with the conservation of electric charge, the sum of currents entering a junction must equal the sum of currents exiting the junction 2. The sum of the voltage sources in a circuit loop is equal to the sum of voltage drops along that loop.
Resistors in parallel
1/R=1/R₁+1/R₂+1/R₃+…
Resistors in series
R=R₁+R₂+R₃+…
C (capacitance)
Q/V charge/voltage which means there are two ways to increase the charge in a capacitor 1. to increase the voltage, because a greater potential difference will drive the accumulation of more charge 2. to increase the capacitance, which is a measure of how well the capacitor itself, as a device, can store charge
Capacitor
a device used to store an electric charge, consisting of two parallel plates takeaway for MCAT C (capacitance) =(constant)(A/d) (assumption is that this all occurs in a vacuum-but if there is something between the plates then multiply by the ratio of the constant for the substance/constant for vacuum) aka increasing the area of the plates and bringing them closer together will increase the capacitance
electric field arrow lines go from
positive to negative charge
E (strength of an electric field)=
V/d (voltage difference/distance between the plates) *can only use this formula with uniform electric fields
potential energy from a capacitor
PE=1/2CV^2
Capacitors in Series
1/C=1/C₁+1/C₂+…
Capacitors in Parallel
C=C₁+C₂+C₃+…
magnetic fields only affect ______ charges
moving (unlike electric fields)
magnetic field generated by current moving through a wire
B=(constant)(current)/(2)(pi)(distance from the wire) B=(mu)(I)/(2)(pi)(r)
right hand rule for current-carrying wires
place thumb in direction of the current running through the wire (I), the direction of the magnetic field follows the pattern in which your fingers curve
force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving particle=
F= qvBsin() v=velocity q=charge ()=angle of the velocity of the particle to the magnetic field (force will be maximized when the motion is perpendicular) -applied to positive particles only
force exerted by a magnetic field on a current-carrying wire=
F=(current)(length)(strength of magnetic force)sin()
Lorentz force
sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body
capacitance _______ as the distance between parallel plates decreases
increases
When a dielectric material is introduced between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor and completely fills the space, the capacitance
increases
periodic motion
any motion that repeats in a regular cycle
potential energy for periodic motion
pendulum: mgh mass on an ideal spring: 1/2kx^2
Hooke’s Law
F=-kx (restoring force)
Period of a Spring
Ts (period of a spring) = 2π√(m/k)
Period of a pendulum
Tp=2π√l/g
large value of T (period) means a ______ frequency
low
Velocity of a wave
v = fλ
The speed of sound depends on
the compresibility (represented by the bulk modulus variable) travels slowest through gases bc they are the most compressible travels fastest through rigid, incompressible solids
Higher amplitude means
more energy
in a standing wave the points of zero displacement are called _____ and the points of maximum displacement are referred to as _______
zero displacement=nodes maximum displacement=antinodes
fundamental frequency
first harmonic
standing wave on a pipe vs standing wave on a taught string
pipe: ends on an antinode on one end and node on the other end taught string: ends on a node at both ends
standing wave in a pipe
can only work for odd values of n
speed of sound in air
343 m/s
Intensity of a wave
power/area (W/m^2)
period and frequency are
inversely related
Critical damping
the condition in which the damping of an oscillator causes it to return as quickly as possible to its equilibrium position (rest position)
Underdamping
damping in a system that experiences a small resistive force, so that the system oscillates with decreasing amplitude, slowly decreases to zero
Overdamping
Heavy damping such that the system takes longer to return to equilibrium than a critically damped system, but returns to rest faster than underdamping
viscous damping
is caused by such energy losses as occur in liquid lubrication between moving parts or in a fluid forced through a small opening
beat frequency
f=|f₁-f₂| beats are caused by the interference of two waves at the same point in space
wave-particle duality
light can behave as both a wave and a particle
light is an
electromagnetic wave
speed of light (c)
3.00 x 10^8 m/s (fastest speed possible for all forms of conventional matter in the universe) all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
Velocity of a wave
v = fλ
Energy of a wave
hf (h is planck’s constant) or hc/wavelength
high energy waves
high frequency, short wavelength
low energy waves
low frequency, long wavelength
spectrometer
generates a spectrum, used to determine the degree to which a substance, often in solution, absorbs different wavelengths of light
apparent color of an object
is caused by the wavelengths of light that dont absorb, aka an absorbance peak for a wavelength means that the substance will NOT appear to be that color
reflection and refraction
both occur when the wave encounters a different medium than the on it is travelling in, diffraction=changes path, reflection=bounces off the new medium
Circumference of a circle
2πr
Area of a circle
A=πr²
SI base units
mass-kg, length-m, time-s, temp-K, amount of substance-mol, electrical current- A (ampere), luminous intensity - candela (cd)
scalar quantity
A quantity in physics, such as mass, volume, distance, speed and time, that can be completely specified by its magnitude, and has no direction. Distance, along with speed, is a scalar quantity, meaning that it measures only magnitude and not direction. Since the car continues to move throughout the process, distance is constantly increasing and is never negative.
when you take the square root of a decimal
it becomes a slightly larger decimal
mechanical energy
KE + PE is lost/not conserved when there is friction or air resistance
conservative force
A force, such as gravity, that performs work over a distance that is independent of the path taken. Gravity and the spring force are classic examples of conservative forces, or forces that do work that does not depend on the path taken. Conservative forces can also be thought of as those that act in situations where mechanical energy is conserved.
nonconservative forces
Forces that its work depends on the path. Eg: friction. Both air resistance and friction are nonconservative forces. If they are present during a scenario, mechanical energy will not be conserved.
One joule is equivalent to
one N∙m
one newton is the same as one ____
(kg∙m)/s^2
Watts are the unit for….. and are equivalent to…..
power (kg∙m2)/s3
efficiency
(useful work) / (energy in)
laws of thermodynamics
The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero
work (dealing with pressure)=
PΔV
A hoop and a sphere, each of mass M, are rolled down a frictionless ramp. At the bottom of the ramp, which object will have the greater translational velocity, and why?
An object’s moment of inertia contributes to its rotational kinetic energy. Since a higher moment of inertia correlates to a higher rotational KE, it also means that translational KE must be lower, as the sum of these two values must equal the potential energy at the top of the incline. For the sphere, more of its mass is concentrated towards the center than for the hoop. As a result, the sphere’s moment of inertia will be lower.
If a gas is expanding in a container, then ____________.
it is performing work on a container -it also loses heat because it is performing work, so it gets colder even though it gets bigger (when a gas is compressed, work is being done on it)
work-energy theorem
whenever work is done, energy changes aka work and energy are the same, work done=energy
adabiatic
no heat or matter is added to the system/transferred
Isobaric
constant pressure
isothermic
constant temperature
isochoric
constant volume
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
First law of thermodynamics
Energy can neither be created not destroyed but it may be converted from one form to another
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
No system can reach absolute zero, so can never have anything below 0 degrees kelvin
Newton’s First Law
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newton’s Second Law
F=ma
Newton’s Third Law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Watts (units of power)
Joules/second
frequency of oscillation
f = 1/2π [√(k/m)]
Period of oscillation
inverse of frequency of oscillation
Convex v Concave meniscus
concave-when interacts with the walls of the container more strongly than it does with itself convex- when it interacts with itself more strongly than it does with the container
scalar quantity
a quantity that can be described by magnitude only and has no direction
units for electric potential
Volts or J/C (joules/coulomb)
units for electric field
N/C or V/m
charge has units of
coulombs
electrostatic force has units of
newtons (like all forces)
Period of a pendulum
T=2π√l/g
elastic potential energy of a spring
U = ½ kx^2
1 atm is equal to
101,500 Pa
how do voltage and current go through parallel resistors
Voltage drops across parallel branches of a circuit are always identical; this idea forms the basis for Kirchoff’s second law. However, if the resistance values of the resistors are not equal, different amounts of current will pass through them. Specifically, more current will travel through the branch of lower resistance.
of molecules in a mol
6 × 10^23 molecules
charge of an ion
1.6 × 10-19 C/ion
Capacitance
the ability of a conductor to store energy in the form of electrically separated charges C = εA/d
a particle must have what to experience the effect of a magnetic field
it is evident that a particle must possess both velocity and a charge (whether positive or negative) to be affected by a magnetic field F=qvB
Lentz’s Law
Direction of the induced current is such that the induced magnetic field always opposes the change ex. This law, which brings to mind conservation of energy and even Le Châtelier’s principle, states that a change to a magnetic field will always generate a current that counteracts that change. Here, the external field is becoming stronger, or more heavily positioned out of the page. To resist this change, it will induce a current that promotes a field pointing the opposite direction, into the page. The right-hand rule tells us that this current must travel clockwise.
right hand rule for magnetic force
this is for positive charge, so if negative then flip
what does not change when a wave goes from one media to another (and the two media have different densities)
frequency
the decible scale is a logarithmic scale in which each 10 decibel interval, or a factor of 10, thus a 40 dB difference represents a _______ difference in intensity
10^4 or 10000
total internal reflection occurs only when traveling from a material with a _______ refractive index to a material with a ________ refractive index
higher, lower
convex mirrors have _____ focal lengths
negative
convex mirrors always form ______ images
virtual
Magnification equation
m = -i/o (negative because the image is inverted)
radius of curvature is equal to
twice the focal length
photoelectric effect
The emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal
when a uniform magnetic field is used to accelerate particles (this is used in mass spec) then what can be assumed…
-the particles are charged -the particles are moving at a constant velocity -the particles have the same velocity
strong nuclear force
the attractive force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus
bulk modulus
numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a solid or fluid
velocity of a sound wave through a medium
v = √B/ρ where B = bulk modulus and ρ = density When the bulk moduli of several media are equal, sound will travel the slowest through the material with the highest density.
relationship between intensity and decibels of sound
dB = 10 log (I/Iinitial) I=intensity
doppler equation
f’ = f (vsound ∓ vreceiver / vsound ∓ vsource). If the objects are moving closer together overall, the perceived frequency of sound should increase
transverse v oscillating wave
longitudinal wave-This wave’s oscillation is forward-and-backwards in amplitude, while its overall direction of propagation is forward. Because the amplitude of oscillation is parallel to the direction of the wave’s motion, it is a longitudinal wave. ex slinky wave moving left to right if held straight perpendicularly A transverse wave-has an amplitude perpendicular to its overall direction of propagation. ex exercise ropes
c=
lamda(f)
Energy of a wave
hf
in a double slit when looking at the light bands of constructive interference, the bands must be
bright region on the optical screen must result from constructive interference. This tells you that the two waves involved must be completely in phase, or differ by exact multiples of a wavelength
Which changes are experienced by visible light as it moves from Medium 1 (n = 1.16) to Medium 2 (n = 1.68)?
Wavelength decreases while frequency remains constant. light rays are moving from a material with a low index of refraction to one with a relatively high one. According to the equation n = c / v (which can be rearranged to v = c / n), the light will slow down during this transition. From here, it is helpful to remember this relationship: velocity = λf. Since the velocity of this light is decreasing, the product of wavelength and frequency must decrease in a corresponding manner. Furthermore, the frequency of light does not change when that light transitions between media. Thus, it must be wavelength that drops to yield the predicted decrease in speed.
When adding chemical reactions, the associated equilibrium constants can be
multiplied together to give the equilibrium constant for the overall reaction.
SDS-PAGE-acts like a _____ cell, and negatively charged proteins move towards the ___________
electrolytic, positive anode SDS-PAGE uses a detergent (SDS) to make all proteins negatively charged. We should know for test day that electrophoresis requires an external power source, indicating that it acts like an electrolytic cell. This means the anode will be positive (higher potential), and the cathode will be negative (lower potential). Thus, the proteins will migrate towards the positive anode.
electrolytic cell v galvanic/voltaic cell
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/oxidation-reduction/electrolytic-cell/v/introduction-to-electrolysis For both: matter is added to the side where reduction is occurring electrolytic- REDCAT cathode (-) cell electric potential is negative (not spontaneous) galvanic/voltaic- REDCAT cathode (+) cell electric potential is positive (spontaneous)
At standard temperature and pressure (0°C, 1 atm), 1 mole of any gas will occupy _______ of volume.
22.4 L
partial pressure=
mole fraction x total pressure
The solubility is determined by Henry’s law
H = c/P The calculated solubility constants are (in units of μmol/L•atm)
Ammeter
a device used to measure current
Voltmeter
measures potential difference (voltage)
total internal reflection can be calculated by putting one of the angles in snells law equal to 90 because sin(90)=1
This angle of incidence can be calculated via Snell’s Law: n1sinθcrit = n2sin90°
Real images formed by just one lens will always be
inverted
Virtual images formed by just one lens will always be
erect (aka right side up)
n (index of refraction)=
c/v
In humans, the clearest vision results when i
is equal to the distance from the lens to the fovea
if an object is placed on the focal point (o = f) then
the image distance will be infinity, so no image will be seen 1/20 = 1/i + 1/20 1/i = 1/20 - 1/20 1/i = 0 i = ∞
The lowest pitched sound will have the _______ frequency.
lowest
Calculating Fundamental Frequency in a closed pipe (closed at one end open on the other)
(λ = 4L/n) With L=length of pipe and n = 1 because it is the fundamental frequency
An easier way to remember open and closed pipes is that yin a closed pipe you start with 1/4 wavelength as the fundamental frequency then keep adding 1/2 wavelength for following harmonics
For open pipes it is the same thing, but you start with 1\2 wavelength as the fundamental frequency then add 1/2 a wavelength for the following harmonics
if a ray of light is entering and exiting glass where each side of the glass is the same substance (has the same n) then
angle entering is the same as the angle exiting on the other side
bigger wavelength/ lower frequency means
the wave can travel through things and not bump, so speed is not as hindered by the molecules of the substance
a wavelength entering a substance: more bumping molecules=
more refraction on the other side n=c/v v=velocity of light in a media (prism etc)
n is not a property of the media, it is dependent on both
the wavelength of light entering and the media itself, so like blue light entering a prism bounces more than red light so it is slowed down more
more refraction=
higher n
f is positive when it is on the _____ side as the viewer
same the f (focal length) is nexative when on the opposite side of the viewer
know if an image is virtual or real by looking at the sign of
i in the thin lens equation -=virtual +=real
know if an image is inverted or upright based on sign of
m or magnification in m=-i/o formula
fundamental frequency=
also known as first harmonic, it is the longest wavelength of a standing wave in a given tube aka the lowest frequency achievable in the given tube
permittivity of water is ______ than that of free space
higher
2 wires with currents are running parallel to eachother->
the magnetic fields don’t interact with eachother, rather the magnetic field of one interacts with the moving charge on the other wire if the force point from one to the other, then they attract, if the forces point away then they repel, you have to do both right hand rules to find where the force is pointing, first the curve hand rule then the flat hand rule
in a parallel circuit the same ____ goes into each arm, but the ______ is variable based on the euqation V=IR
same=voltage dependent on resistance=current *important to note that the v going into each arm is the same, the I is varbale between arms, but within and arm the I is constant, even though different resistance resistors contribute different proportions of voltage drop
For gases, higher temperatures result in behavior that is ________ ideal
more Generally, a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and lower pressure,[1] as the potential energy due to intermolecular forces becomes less significant compared with the particles’ kinetic energy, and the size of the molecules becomes less significant compared to the empty space between them.
temperature is the approximation of….
average kinetic energy T ~ KEavg = ½mv2
What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?
E = hf = hc/λ
flow rate =
AV (cross-sectional area (velocity))
Rydberg Equation
1/wavelength = R (1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2) used to calculate the emission wavelength of the emission when an electron goes from high to low energy levels
log (x) = 6
x=10^6
What does laminar flow look like?
Laminar flow is due to shear forces (friction) between the fluid and the solid surface of the tube. This results in layers having a gradient of velocities, in which the flow is the fastest in the middle of the tube (where friction is low) and slowest near the surface (where friction is high).
what is the range of human hearing?
20 Hz to 20 kHz
Henry’s Law
The solubility is determined by Henry’s law, H = c/P . The calculated solubility constants are (in units of μmol/L•atm) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/respiratory-system/gas-exchange-jv/v/henry-s-law
apparent color of an object
is caused by the wavelengths of light that dont absorb, aka an absorbance peak for a wavelength means that the substance will NOT appear to be that color
reflection and refraction
both occur when the wave encounters a different medium than the on it is travelling in, diffraction=changes path, reflection=bounces off the new medium
Circumference of a circle
2πr
Area of a circle
A=πr²
SI base units
mass-kg, length-m, time-s, temp-K, amount of substance-mol, electrical current- A (ampere), luminous intensity - candela (cd)
scalar quantity
A quantity in physics, such as mass, volume, distance, speed and time, that can be completely specified by its magnitude, and has no direction.
when you take the square root of a decimal
it becomes a slightly larger decimal
mechanical energy
KE + PE
conservative force
A force, such as gravity, that performs work over a distance that is independent of the path taken.
nonconservative forces
Forces that its work depends on the path. Eg: friction.
One joule is equivalent to
one N∙m
one newton is the same as one ____
(kg∙m)/s^2
Watts are the unit for….. and are equivalent to…..
power
efficiency
(useful work) / (energy in)
laws of thermodynamics
The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system.
work (dealing with pressure)=
PΔV
A hoop and a sphere, each of mass M, are rolled down a frictionless ramp. At the bottom of the ramp, which object will have the greater translational velocity, and why?
An object’s moment of inertia contributes to its rotational kinetic energy. Since a higher moment of inertia correlates to a higher rotational KE, it also means that translational KE must be lower, as the sum of these two values must equal the potential energy at the top of the incline. For the sphere, more of its mass is concentrated towards the center than for the hoop. As a result, the sphere’s moment of inertia will be lower.
If a gas is expanding in a container, then ____________.
it is performing work on a container
work-energy theorem
whenever work is done, energy changes
adabiatic
no heat or matter is added to the system/transferred
Isobaric
constant pressure
isothermic
constant temperature
isochoric
constant volume
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
First law of thermodynamics
Energy can neither be created not destroyed but it may be converted from one form to another
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
No system can reach absolute zero, so can never have anything below 0 degrees kelvin
Newton’s First Law
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newton’s Second Law
F=ma
Newton’s Third Law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Watts (units of power)
Joules/second
frequency of oscillation
f = 1/2π [√(k/m)]
Period of oscillation
inverse of frequency of oscillation
Convex v Concave meniscus
concave-when interacts with the walls of the container more strongly than it does with itself
scalar quantity
a quantity that can be described by magnitude only and has no direction
units for electric potential
Volts or J/C (joules/coulomb)
units for electric field
N/C or V/m
charge has units of
coulombs
electrostatic force has units of
newtons (like all forces)
Period of a pendulum
T=2π√l/g
elastic potential energy of a spring
U = ½ kx^2
1 atm is equal to
101,500 Pa
how do voltage and current go through parallel resistors
Voltage drops across parallel branches of a circuit are always identical; this idea forms the basis for Kirchoff’s second law. However, if the resistance values of the resistors are not equal, different amounts of current will pass through them. Specifically, more current will travel through the branch of lower resistance.
of molecules in a mol
6 × 10^23 molecules
charge of an ion
1.6 × 10-19 C/ion
Capacitance
the ability of a conductor to store energy in the form of electrically separated charges
a particle must have what to experience the effect of a magnetic field
it is evident that a particle must possess both velocity and a charge (whether positive or negative) to be affected by a magnetic field
Lentz’s Law
Direction of the induced current is such that the induced magnetic field always opposes the change
right hand rule for magnetic force
this is for positive charge, so if negative then flip
what does not change when a wave goes from one media to another (and the two media have different densities)
frequency
the decible scale is a logarithmic scale in which each 10 decibel interval, or a factor of 10, thus a 40 dB difference represents a _______ difference in intensity
10^4 or 10000
total internal reflection occurs only when traveling from a material with a _______ refractive index to a material with a ________ refractive index
higher, lower
convex mirrors have _____ focal lengths
negative
convex mirrors always form ______ images
virtual
Magnification equation
m = -i/o (negative because the image is inverted)
radius of curvature is equal to
twice the focal length
photoelectric effect
The emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal
when a uniform magnetic field is used to accelerate particles (this is used in mass spec) then what can be assumed…
-the particles are charged
strong nuclear force
the attractive force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus
bulk modulus
numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a solid or fluid
velocity of a sound wave through a medium
v = √B/ρ
relationship between intensity and decibels of sound
dB = 10 log (I/Iinitial)
doppler equation
f’ = f (vsound ∓ vreceiver / vsound ∓ vsource). If the objects are moving closer together overall, the perceived frequency of sound should increase
transverse v oscillating wave
longitudinal wave-This wave’s oscillation is forward-and-backwards in amplitude, while its overall direction of propagation is forward. Because the amplitude of oscillation is parallel to the direction of the wave’s motion, it is a longitudinal wave. ex slinky wave moving left to right if held straight perpendicularly
c=
lamda(f)
Energy of a wave
hf
in a double slit when looking at the light bands of constructive interference, the bands must be
bright region on the optical screen must result from constructive interference. This tells you that the two waves involved must be completely in phase, or differ by exact multiples of a wavelength
Which changes are experienced by visible light as it moves from Medium 1 (n = 1.16) to Medium 2 (n = 1.68)?
Wavelength decreases while frequency remains constant.
When adding chemical reactions, the associated equilibrium constants can be
multiplied together to give the equilibrium constant for the overall reaction.
SDS-PAGE-acts like a _____ cell, and negatively charged proteins move towards the ___________
electrolytic, positive anode
electrolytic cell v galvanic/voltaic cell
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/oxidation-reduction/electrolytic-cell/v/introduction-to-electrolysis
At standard temperature and pressure (0°C, 1 atm), 1 mole of any gas will occupy _______ of volume.
22.4 L
partial pressure=
mole fraction x total pressure
The solubility is determined by Henry’s law
H = c/P
Ammeter
a device used to measure current
Voltmeter
measures potential difference (voltage)
total internal reflection can be calculated by putting one of the angles in snells law equal to 90 because sin(90)=1
This angle of incidence can be calculated via Snell’s Law: n1sinθcrit = n2sin90°
Real images formed by just one lens will always be
inverted
Virtual images formed by just one lens will always be
erect (aka right side up)
n (index of refraction)=
c/v
In humans, the clearest vision results when i
is equal to the distance from the lens to the fovea
if an object is placed on the focal point (o = f) then
the image distance will be infinity, so no image will be seen
The lowest pitched sound will have the _______ frequency.
lowest
Calculating Fundamental Frequency in a closed pipe
(λ = 4L/n)
if a ray of light is entering and exiting glass where each side of the glass is the same substance (has the same n) then
angle entering is the same as the angle exiting on the other side
bigger wavelength/ lower frequency means
the wave can travel through things and not bump, so speed is not as hindered by the molecules of the substance
more bumping molecules=
more refraction on the other side
n is not a property of the media, it is dependent on both
the wavelength of light entering and the media itself, so like blue light entering a prism bounces more than red light so it is slowed down more
more refraction=
higher n
f is positive when it is on the _____ side as the viewer
same
know if an image is virtual or real by looking at the sign of
i in the thin lens equation
know if an image is inverted or upright based on sign of
m or magnification in
fundamental frequency=
also known as first harmonic, it is the longest wavelength of a standing wave in a given tube aka the lowest frequency achievable in the given tube
permittivity of water is ______ than that of free space
higher
2 wires with currents are running parallel to eachother->
the magnetic fields don’t interact with eachother, rather the magnetic field of one interacts with the moving charge on the other wire
in a parallel circuit the same ____ goes into each arm, but the ______ is variable based on the euqation V=IR
same=voltage
For gases, higher temperatures result in behavior that is ________ ideal
more
temperature is the approximation of….
average kinetic energy
What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?
E = hf = hc/λ
flow rate =
AV
Rydberg Equation
1/wavelength = R (1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2)
log (x) = 6
x=10^6
What does laminar flow look like?
Laminar flow is due to shear forces (friction) between the fluid and the solid surface of the tube. This results in layers having a gradient of velocities, in which the flow is the fastest in the middle of the tube (where friction is low) and slowest near the surface (where friction is high).
what is the range of human hearing?
20 Hz to 20 kHz
Henry’s Law
The solubility is determined by Henry’s law, H = c/P . The calculated solubility constants are (in units of μmol/L•atm)
suffixes -ite and -ate
-ite (fewer O atoms NO2-) -ate (greater number of O atoms NO3-)
Bohr Model
model of an atom that shows electrons in circular orbits around the nucleus
Bohr/Rutherford experiment
also showed that energy is emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts called quanta which can be seen on an atomic absorption/emission spectrum
when an electron jumps valence shells, the energy released can be modeled as:
E=(plank’s constant)(frequency of the light) E=hf or bc we know the frequency of a wave is equal to the speed of light in a vacuum (c) divided by its wavelength, we can say E=hc/wavelength
frequency of light in a vacuum (c)
3.00x10^8 m/s
energy (E) of an election at a certain energy level (n)
E=-Rydberg constant/ n^2
energy emitted or absorbed as an electron moves between two energy levels
change in E= hc/wavelength=R(1/(nf)^2-1/(ni)^2)
going from a low to high energy level is energy _______, while going from high to low is energy ______
absorption, emission
Orbital shapes
s (spherical); p (dumbbell); d (double dumbbell plus donut); f (too complicated)
principal quantum number
symbolized by n, indicates the main energy level occupied by the electron (row that element is on)
azimuthal quantum number (angular momentum)
Second quantum number, designated l. Tells us the shapes of the electron orbitals, describes the subshell of the principle quantum number, ranges from 0 to n-1 l=0 (s) l=1 (p) l=2 (d) l=3 (f)
magnetic quantum number
symbolized by m, indicates the orientation of an orbital around the nucleus (ranges from -l to +l)
Spin number (m)
Spin of electron. Can be -1/2 or 1/2
Saponification
usually use triacylglycerols: breaking down the esters formed between the -COOH groups of fatty acids and the -OH groups of glycerol under basic conditions
Sphingolipids
Fatty acid residue bonded to a sphingosine, found on the outer side of the plasma membrane and play a crucial role in signaling systems
Prostaglandins
(subcategory of eicosanoids) Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells, synthesized from arachidonic acid, have 20 carbons and a 5 carbon ring, help regulate inflammation
Terpenes and terpenoids
these are the precursors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules and have varied independent functions Know: 1. Vitamin A is a terpene derivative 2. Squaline, a 30 carbon terpene, is a precursor for the synthesis of cholesterol, steroid hormones, and Vitamin D
in eukaryotes, carbohydrates occur in their ____ isomers
D (D/L is based on the orientation of the glyceraldehyde and is not equivalent to either R/S or dextrorotary/levorotary
sucrose
glucose + fructose
Lactose
glucose + galactose
Maltose
glucose + glucose
mRNA
messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome
tRNA
transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome
rRNA
ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome
hnRNA
Heterogeneous nuclear RNA; the primary transcript made in eukaryotes before splicing.
siRNA
small interfering RNA, prevent the production of specific proteins based on the nucleotide sequences of their corresponding mRNA
miRNA
A microRNA is a small non-coding RNA molecule found in plants, animals and some viruses, that functions in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression
Epimers
A subtype of diastereomers that differ in absolute configuration at exactly one chiral carbon, so everything is the same except for one chiral center
Diastereomers
stereoisomers that are not mirror images (not enantiomers)
enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other, so each chiral center has the oppostite configuration
constitutional isomers (structural isomers)
compounds with the same molecular formula but different connections among their atoms
rotamers
two or more different conformations of the same molecule that can be interconverted into one another by rotation around a single bond Rotamers are conformational isomers that differ by rotation about a single σ bond. (trans and cis)
micelle
A small particle formed by aggregates of molecules with both polar and nonpolar segments (e.g., soap); the polar ends of these molecules point outward toward a polar solvent (e.g., water) while the non-polar ends will point inward toward a nonpolar solute (dirt/oil/grease). This allows the nonpolar substance to be washed away by the polar substance. fatty acids make these, but phospholipids and glycolipds are too bulky to form these
energy denisities of macronutrients
fats (lipids)-9 kcal/g carbohydrates (sugars)-4 kcal/g proteins-4 kcal/g
Aufbau Principle
the rule that electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first
nuclear shielding
concept of filled orbitals of e- between nucleus and valence e- reduce pull on valence e- by protons
Avogadro’s number
6.02 x 10^23
bond angles to know: bent (water)
104.5 degrees
bond angles to know: trigonal pyramidal
107 degrees
bond angles to know: tetrahedral
109.5 degrees
bond angles to know: trigonal planar
120 degrees
bond angles to know: linear
180 degrees
VSEPR theory
Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory; because electron pairs repel, molecules adjust their shapes so that valence electron pairs are as far apart as possible
trigonal planar
has 3 binding regions (no electron pairs)
aluminum
is an exception to the quartet rule, makes 3 bonds
bond length is determined by
the sizes (radii) of the two bonding atoms and how many electron pairs they share
SN1 stereochemistry
In an SN1 reaction, the original stereochemistry of the molecule is lost when the carbocation intermediate (a planar structure) is formed. Thus, the product is present as a racemic mixture. Such a mixture includes each enantiomer in a 1:1 ratio, meaning that it promotes no net rotation of polarized light.
epimer
These molecules differ at a single stereogenic center, classifying them as epimers.
anomeric carbon
anomeric carbon (the carbon atom bound to two separate oxygen groups)
E1 reaction-DONT NEED TO KNOW
E1 reactions are unimolecular eliminations. These reactions are analogous to SN1 mechanisms, as both are first-order and involve the formation of a carbocation. As such, both are heavily favored by tertiary reagents. Additionally, use of a mild or weak base tends to push a reaction toward E1, as E2 reactions (which are bimolecular) require moderately strong basic species. Finally, like SN1 processes, E1 reactions prefer protic solvents for carbocation stabilization.
UV-visible spectroscopy
-An analytical technique involving measurement of the UV-visible light absorbed by a substance. -mainly used to analyze conjugated systems
What would PCC oxide an alcohol to?
As a weak oxidizing agent, PCC will oxidize a primary alcohol to an aldehyde. According to IUPAC naming convention, this aldehyde group will be given the highest priority, so our numbering should begin at that end of the chain. The parent alkane is five carbons long, and our high-priority aldehyde is given the suffix “-al,” yielding “pentanal.” From there, the methyl substituents are numbered based on the carbons to which they are attached.
What would CrO3 and K2Cr2O7 turn a primary alcohol into?
strong oxidants and will thus oxidize a primary alcohol directly to a carboxylic acid
addition of pyridine (ring with an N in it)
(a weak base) will decrease the chance of this protonation, inhibiting carbocation formation
which is a better acid ethanol, or ethanthiol
Since sulfur is much larger than oxygen, the conjugate base of ethanethiol is better able to delocalize negative charge, increasing its stability. Remember, the more stable the conjugate base, the stronger the acid.
SN2
These processes, formally known as bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions, happen in one step and involve a “backside attack” by a strong nucleophile. Since the attacking atom must bind at the same time as the leaving group is removed, these reactions require an unhindered substrate.
good leaving groups are
weak bases
Can acetals form under basic conditions?
No, acetals cannot form under basic conditions. Under basic conditions, only hemiacetals can be formed. Acetals, which result from the reaction of a hemiacetal with an alcohol, require acidic conditions.
Hemiacetals and hemiketals exist in equilibrium with
aldehydes and ketones.
alpha hydrogen
An alpha hydrogen is one that is bound to the carbon immediately adjacent to a carbonyl carbon
chromic acid
Chromic acid (H2CrO4), like many chromium-containing reagents, is a strong oxidizing agent. Reaction of a primary alcohol with such a compound will oxidize it as thoroughly as possible. Since a primary alcohol has only one bond to carbon, it possesses the ability to form three bonds to oxygen, creating a carboxylic acid.
reducing agent NaBH4 turns an aldehyde into?
could turn an aldehyde into an alcohol
kinetic v thermal product
The kinetic product is the one that is less thermodynamically stable, but is easier to synthesize due to a lower activation energy. In general, kinetic enolates are less substituted than their thermodynamic counterparts. Here, the double bond has formed in the position that is less sterically hindered (between carbons 1 and 6).If this were the thermodynamic enolate, it would have the double bond between carbons 1 and 2 (the more substituted position adjacent to what formerly was the carbonyl carbon).
reducing agents
-Chemically, deuterium and hydrogen behave identically. Thus, lithium aluminum deuteride may be considered to be equivalent to lithium aluminum hydride (LAH). LAH is a strong reducing agent and is certainly capable of reducing both carboxylic acids and aldehydes. It would therefore be the most appropriate choice. -Sodium borohydride would be perfectly adequate for selective reduction of the aldehyde, but it lacks the reducing power necessary to reduce the carboxylic acid. -Sodium hydride is a strong base, but is not a hydride source and thus is not a reducing agent. -Potassium cyanide is a nucleophile and a weak base. It is not an appropriate choice for any reduction reactions.
Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is a
reagent commonly used to convert carboxylic acids into acyl halides
Reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol forms an
ester. Esters are nearly identical to carboxylic acids in terms of reactivity.
halide leaving group stability
iodine serves as the best leaving group. To understand this concept, consider the periodic table. As a member of a much lower period than (for example) fluorine, iodine is a very large atom. As such, it can easily delocalize the negative charge gained when it exits as a leaving group. The better the leaving group, the more reactive the compound, and a more reactive molecule is by definition less stable.
Reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives
acid anhydride, one of the more reactive of the carboxylic acid derivatives. Esters, in contrast, are moderately unreactive, since their leaving groups are extremely unstable in solution
When cyanide reacts with propanal (an aldehyde), it forms a
cyanohydrin. Interestingly, it is the carbon - not the nitrogen - atom that acts as a nucleophile to attack the carbonyl carbon. The final cyanohydrin product consists of the former carbonyl carbon bound to -OH, -H, the original -R group from the aldehyde, and -C≡N.
Charles’ law states
that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature
Dalton’s law
Dalton’s law states that the total pressure in a vessel is the sum of the partial pressures of the components. Moreover, the partial pressure of a gas is proportional to its mole fraction in the container.
As increasing amounts of NaCl are added to water
boiling point will increase, melting point will decrease, and vapor pressure will decrease.
metathesis reaction is synonymous with
a double displacement reaction in which two reactants exchange cations (also could think of it as two reactants switching anions)
how to calculate oxidation state
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/oxidation-reduction/redox-oxidation-reduction/v/practice-determining-oxidation-states (a hint that oxdation is occurring is if large amounts of oxygen are present)
Avogadro’s number
6.02 x 10^23
What is Keq?
[products]/[reactants] at equilibrium so if greater than 1 favors products
Keq for reverse reaction
1/Keq
Q is the reaction quotient
-it is the same formula as Keq, but the concentrations come from any point in time, not just during equilibrium -so if Q
Le Chatelier’s Principle
States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress. stress= change in reactant or product concentrations, temperature, pressure, or volume
if change in H is negative
the reaction is exothermic
if a reaction is exothermic, then heat is a ___
product
specific heat capacity
q=mcdeltaT
change in H reaction
ERROR!
Gibbs free energy
ERROR!
exergonic reaction
Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy, so gibbs free energy is negative and reaction is spontaneous *to clarify beign spontaneous does not mean anything about the kinetics, or rate of reaction
rate is a kinetic parameter and is largely determined by
activation energy (affected by enzyme catalysists)
delta G of rxn =
-RTlnK R=8 T=kelvin ln(1)=0
thermodynamic product
-is more stable -forms more slowly (favored when temp is high bc has enough energy to overcome the high activation energy barrier)
kinetic product
-forms more quickly -less thermodynamically stable -lower activation energy -favored at low temperatures
heat equation for for temperature change (not phase change)
q=mcdeltaT q=heat m=mass c=specific heat capacity of a substance (varies depending on the phase) delta T= temperature
volume and temperature of a gas are directly proportional under constant pressure
V1/T1=V2/T2
Ideal Gas Law
PV=nRT n=number of mols R=.08206L(atm)/(k)mol
molality
mols of solute/kilograms of solvent
Normality
molarity x # of H’s in the acid
assumptions about ideal gasses:
-average KE is proportional to T -particles have no volume -particles exert no forces on each other
nucleoside
nucleotides that lack attached phosphate groups
substitution solvents
polar-facilitates polysubstitution nonpolar-facilitates monosubstitution
acetal v hemiacetal
Hydrolysis of the acetal will yield a free aldehyde and two alcohols
Tollen’s reagent
-detects presence of reducing sugar (if reducing silver is present then a silver coating forms) -uses Ag(NH3)2+ as oxidizing agent *in a + test, aldehydes reduce Ag+ to metallic silver
cholesterol in physiological conditions
In eukaryotic cells in vivo, the role of cholesterol in the membrane is to provide fluidity within the otherwise rigid phospholipid structure.
UV-Vis
typically used to assess the presence of highly conjugated systems
Mass spectrometry peaks represent
mass-to-charge ratios. More specifically, mass spec involves the fragmentation and ionization of the molecule in question. Typically, this ionization simply entails the removal of one electron, leaving the mass of the fragment virtually unchanged.
During a phase change, the temperature of a substance
stays the same
the rate constant can be affected by:
activation energy and temp
catalysis act by
reducing the activation energy (only affect kinetics not thermodynamics)
Rate laws are determined by
experiment
for a radical to form…
there usually needs to be an odd number of valence electrons in the molecule
heterogenous catalyst
a catalyst whose phase is different from the reactants’, ex. a gas catalyst for a liquid reaction
can reason out rate law constant (k) units, rate itself is M/s (which is on left side of equal sign)
then you just plug in molarity on the right side where there are concentrations
Arrhenius acids
produce H+ ions in water
Arrhenius base
Produces OH- ions when dissolved in water
Bronsted-Lowry acid
proton donor
Bronsted-Lowry base
proton acceptor
Lewis acid
electron pair acceptor (electrophiles - Bf3, BCl3, AlCl3, and AIF3)
Lewis base
electron pair donor
Amphiprotic
A species that can either accept or donate a proton, so can act as either and acid or a base, ex. H2O which can become OH- or H3O+ also amino acids are an example
amphipathic
having both a hydrophilic region (polar) and a hydrophobic region (non polar)
Ka and Kb constants, (dissociation constants of acids and bases)
ratio of concentration of products to reactants, so the higher it is the stronger it is bc it has more dissociation
strong acids
HCl, HBr, HI, HClO3, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4 (not strong acids: HF, H2CO3, H3PO4)
Strong bases include
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
pOH
-log[OH-]
pH
-log[H+]
when using pH scale, a shortcut to calculating pH is that if the concentration of [H+] is written in scientific notation, then the pH is the negative of the exponent
1 x 10^-4 pH would be 4
pKa vs Ka
higher ka is a stronger acid but smaller pKa is a stronger acid, same relationship is true for bases, because K always refers to the disassociation (ratio of products to reactant concentration)
(Ka)(KB)=
Kw=10•-14
pKa+pKb=
pKw=14
ICE table
Initial, Change, Equilibrium
ICE tables what to add/subtract
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=54n1XppP-lA
For elementary reactions (or single-step), stoichiometric coefficients can be used to write the
rate law These coefficients become exponents according to the following theoretical example: for the reaction aA + bB → cC, rate = k[A]a[B]b.
Keq can be found by
placing products over reactants, with each species raised to an exponent corresponding to its coefficient in the chemical reaction. (Note that all concentrations must be at equilibrium.) Solids and pure liquids are not included in this expression.
Ksp
read this: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Solubilty/Solubility_Product_Constant%2C_Ksp
As an equilibrium constant, Ksp only responds to changes in
temperature
The lower the value of the pOH of a solution, the more _____ the solution is.
basic (akaline)
what forms a good buffer?
Equimolar amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate will form an ideal buffer. -not strong acids/bases
relationship between pKa and Ka
pKa = -log(Ka)
pH=
-log[H+]
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be written as either
pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA]) or pOH = pKb + log([HA]/[A-])
less positive oxidation potential= less likely to oxidize
less positive oxidation potential; in other words, it is less likely to oxidize and the oxidation potential and reduction potential are inverses of each other
electrolytic cell has to do with the reduction potential and you need to know wthat reduction occurs at the___
cathode reduction potential higher=more likely to be reduced and thus act as an oxidizer In electrolytic cells, the nonspontaneous redox half-reaction will take place thanks to the external current being applied. Since Al3+ has a more negative reduction potential than Cd2+, it is Al3+ that will reduce and Cd (s) that will oxidize. In contrast, in a galvanic cell, the reverse (spontaneous) redox half-reaction would take place. Oxidation and reduction always occur according to the mnemonic “REDCAT”: reduction happens at the cathode and oxidation takes place at the anode.
IR O-H stretching region
3000 to 3700 cm-1,
IR C-H stretching region
2800 to 3000 cm-1
IR C=O stretching region
1700 to 1800 cm-1
IR C-O stretching region
1200 to 1400 cm-1
Where is the isoelectric point on a titration curve?
at the flat part (if there are many isoelectric points then it is the avergae of the two that are the closest together-the two closest should be either both acidic or both basic, of not then choose the ones that are both either acid/base)
Although SPLET and SET-PT have similar total ΔH values, the first step in SET-PT has an especially high ΔH, meaning that it is particularly
unfavored
takeaway: even if total delta H is the same, if the first step of one reaction has a particularly high deltaH, it is more unfavorable than the other reaction with the similar deltaH
velocity
displacement/time
speed
distance traveled/time
Vitamin B1 is best known as a ____
oenzyme in metabolic processes involving amino acids and carbohydrates.
Vitamin E is an ______
antioxidant
coenzyme A
transfers acyl groups from one place to another
