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Biology 101 (BIO 101) > Chapters 8-10 > Flashcards

Chapters 8-10 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cell division

A

Reproduction. Produces two “daughter” cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the original “parent” cell.

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2
Q

Chromosomes

A

Structures that contain most of the cell’s genetic information in the form of DNA.

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3
Q

Asexual reporduction

A

Creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent. Gives rise to a clone.

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4
Q

Clone

A

A group of genetically identical individuals.

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5
Q

Sexual reporduction

A

Requires the fusion of gametes.

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6
Q

Zygote

A

Fertilized egg.

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7
Q

Binary fission

A

“Dividing in half.”

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8
Q

Stages of a binary fission in a prokaryote

A
  1. As chromosome is duplicating, one copy moves toward the opposite end of the cell.
  2. Cell elongates
  3. Duplication is complete; plasma membrane pinches inward, which forms a cell wall, which divides parent cell into two daughter cells.
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9
Q

Cell cycle

A

Ordered sequence of events that run from the instant a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells.

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10
Q

2 main stages of cell cycle

A
  1. interphase: growing phase. Cell doubles in its cytoplasm and replicates its DNA
  2. mitotic phase: actual cell division
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11
Q

interphase

A

Period of cell growth when cell synthesizes new molecules and organelles.

  1. G(1) phase: “first gap”
  2. S phase: “synthesis” of DNA - aka DNA replication
  3. G(2) phase: “second gap”
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12
Q

Mitosis phases

A

Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

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13
Q

Prophase

A

Chromatin fibers in nucleus become more tightly coiled and folded, forming discrete chromosomes.

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14
Q

Metaphase

A

Mitotic spindle is fully formed. Chromosomes line up on metaphase plate.

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15
Q

Anaphase

A

Chromosomes separate and move towards the poles

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16
Q

Telophase

A

Cell elongation continues. Forms a cleavage furrow, then splits.

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17
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Division of cytoplasm and usually occurs simultaneously with telophase.

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18
Q

Anchorage

A

When cells must be in contact with a solid surface to divide.

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19
Q

Cell cycle control system

A

Set of molecules that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.

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20
Q

Tumor

A

A mass of abnormally growing cells within otherwise normal tissue.

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21
Q

Benign tumor

A

Tumor where abnormal cells remain at their original site.

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22
Q

Malignant tumor

A

Mass of abnormally reproducing cells that can spread into neighboring tissues and invade other parts of the body. A individual with this type of tumor is said to have cancer.

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23
Q

Metastasis

A

The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site.

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24
Q

Somatic cell

A

A typical body cell in humans. Usually has 46 chromosomes. Changes in these cells do not influence gametes.

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25
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

The two chromosomes that are twins of each other. Every diploid cell has pairs of these.

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26
Q

Autosomes

A

Chromosomes other than sex hormones.

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27
Q

Life cycle

A

Sequence of generation-to-generation stages in the history of an organism.

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28
Q

Gametes

A

Egg and sperm cells. Only cells of the human body that are not produced by mitosis.

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29
Q

Haploid cell

A

Cell with a single chromosome set.

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30
Q

Meiosis

A

Type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms. Has to consecutive cell divisions: mieosis I and meiosis II

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31
Q

meiosis phase

A

Meiosis I separates the members of each homologous pair and produces two daughter cells, each with one set of chromosomes.
Meiosis II is essentially the same as mitosis:
-In each of the cells, the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate.
The result is a total of four haploid cells.

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32
Q

Crossing over

A

Exchange of corresponding segments between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.

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33
Q

Recombinant chromosomes

A

Result of crossing over. Chromosomes that carry DNA from two different parents.

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34
Q

Nondisjunction

A

In which members of a chromosome pair fail to separate.

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35
Q

Karyotype

A

Ordered display of magnified images of an individual’s chromosomes arranged in pairs.

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36
Q

Trisomy 21

A

when there are three number 21 chromosomes, which results in 47 chromosomes in total.

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37
Q

Deletion

A

Occurs when a chromosomal fragment (with its genes) becomes detached.

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38
Q

In typical prokaryotes, most genes are carried on…

A

one circular DNA molecule that, with associated proteins, constitutes the organism’s chromosome.

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39
Q

Heredity

A

Transmission of traits from one generation to the next.

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40
Q

Genetics

A

Scientific study of heredity.

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41
Q

Character

A

A heritable feature that varies among individuals

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42
Q

Trait

A

Each variant for a character

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43
Q

True-breeding

A

Where self-fertilization produces offspring all identical to the parent.

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44
Q

Hybrds

A

Offspring of two different varieties

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45
Q

Cross

A

Hybridization. Cross-fertilization itself

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46
Q

P generation

A

True-breeding parents

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47
Q

F(1) generation

A

Hybrid offspring of P generation

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48
Q

F(2) generation

A

When F(1) plants self-fertilize or fertilize each other

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49
Q

Alleles

A

Alternative versions of a gene

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50
Q

Homozygous

A

When an organism that has two identical alleles for a gene

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51
Q

Heterozygous

A

When an organism that has two different alleles for a gene.

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52
Q

Dominant allele

A

When two alleles of an inherited pair differ, the dominant allele determines the organism’s appearance

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53
Q

Recessive allele

A

Is the allele that has no noticeable effect on the organism’s appearance when two alleles of an inherited pair differ.

54
Q

Law of segregation

A

A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate (segregate) from each other during the production of gametes.

55
Q

Locus

A

A specific location of a gene along the chromosome

56
Q

Dihybrid

A

Cross between two organisms that are each heterozygous for two characters being followed.

57
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

The inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another.
-the alleles of a pair segregate independently of other allele pairs during gamete formation.

58
Q

Testcross

A

Mating between an individual of an unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual

59
Q

Rule of multiplication

A

1/2 * 1/2 = 1/4

-probability of two independent events occurring.

60
Q

Rule of addition

A

1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2

-Probability of an event that can occur in alternative ways.

61
Q

Complete dominance

A

When the dominant allele has the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies.

62
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

Appearance of F(1) hybrids falls between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties.

63
Q

ABO blood group

A

Phenotype in humans that is controlled by three alleles that produce a total of four phenotypes.

64
Q

Codominant

A

Both alleles are expressed in heterozygous individuals

65
Q

Pleiotropy

A

One gene influences multiple characters. ex: sickle-cell disease

66
Q

Polygenic inheritance

A

a single phenotypic character results from the additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.

67
Q

Chromosome theory of inheritance

A
  • Genes occupy specific loci (positions) on chromosomes, and

- chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis.

68
Q

Linked genes

A

Genes located close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together.

69
Q

Wild-type

A

Traits most common in nature

70
Q

Mutant

A

Traits less common in nature.

71
Q

Recombination frequency

A

The percentage of recombinant offspring among the total

72
Q

Genetic map

A

An ordered list of the genetic loci along a chromosome

73
Q

Sex-linked gene

A

Gene located on either sex chromosome. Majority are X-linked genes.

74
Q

Punnett square

A

shows the four possible combinations of alleles that could occur when these gametes combine.

75
Q

monohybrid cross.

A

A cross between two individuals that are heterozygous for one character

76
Q

dihybrid cross

A

is a mating of parental varieties that differ in two characters.

77
Q

heterozygotes

A

parents who are carriers of the recessive allele for the disorder but are phenotypically normal

78
Q

Linkage map

A

a genetic map based on recombinant frequencies

79
Q

Bacteriophages/phages

A

viruses that exclusively infect bacteria

80
Q

nucleotides

A

what make nucleic acids in RNA and DNA. Made from long chains (polymers) of chemical units (monomers)

81
Q

polynucleotide

A

one of the two strains in DNA. a nucleotide polymer (chain)

82
Q

what does a nucleotide consist of?

A

three components:

  1. a nitrogenous base (A,C,T, or G in DNA)
  2. a five-carbon sugar,
  3. phosphate group. joined by a sugar-phosphate backbone
83
Q

two types of bases

A

single-ring structures called pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine
larger, double-ring structures called purines: adenine, guanine

84
Q

RNA

A

ribonucleic acid

  • uses sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose
  • nitrogenous base uracil
85
Q

DNA

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

  • uses deoxyribose
  • nitrogenous base thymine
86
Q

double helix

A

two polynucleotide strands wrapped around each other in DNA

-held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases

87
Q

C-G base pair

A

has functional groups that form three hydrogen bonds

88
Q

A-T base pair

A

has functional groups that form two hydrogen bonds

89
Q

primary function of DNA

A

encode and store genetic information

-act as the basis of heredity

90
Q

semiconservative model

A

model that DNA replication follows.

  • The two DNA strands separate.
  • Each strand then becomes a template for the assembly of a complementary strand from a supply of free nucleotides.
  • Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new strand.
91
Q

DNA replication starts…

A

with the separation of DNA strands.

-Enzymes then use each strand as a template to assemble new nucleotides into a complementary strand.

92
Q

DNA polymerases

A

enzymes that link DNA nucleotides to a growing daughter strand
-only add nucleotides to 3’ end of the strand

93
Q

DNA ligase

A

enzyme that links, or ligates, Okazaki fragments into a single DNA strand

94
Q

DNA replication

A
  • Using the DNA polymerase, the cell synthesizes one daughter strand as a continuous piece.
  • The other strand is synthesized as a series of short pieces, which are then connected by the enzyme DNA ligase.
95
Q

genotype

A

An organism’s genetic makeup.

-heritable information contained in the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA

96
Q

phenotype

A

organism’s physical/observable traits

97
Q

two main stages of DNA to protein

A
  1. transcription: the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA
  2. translation: the synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA
98
Q

Flow of information within the cell

A

DNA => RNA => protein

99
Q

triplet code

A

basis of flow information from gene to protein. The genetic instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are written in DNA and RNA as codons

100
Q

codons

A

a series of nonoverlapping three-base “words”

101
Q

genetic code

A

set of rules that dictate the amino acid translations of each of the mRNA nucleotide triplets

102
Q

RNA polymerase

A

transcription enzyme

103
Q

promoter

A

a specific nucleotide sequence that acts as a binding site for RNA polymerase and determines where transcription starts.

104
Q

terminator

A

a sequence of DNA bases that signal the end of the gene

105
Q

messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

the kind of RNA that encodes amino acid sequences

106
Q

introns

A

“intervening sequences.” internal non-coding regions

107
Q

exons

A

coding regions - the parts of a gene that are expressed

108
Q

RNA splicing

A
  • introns (non-coding segments of RNA) are spliced out,
  • exons (the parts of a gene that are expressed) are spliced together
  • a cap and tail are added to the ends of the mRNA.
109
Q

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

transfer amino acids from the cytoplasmic pool to a growing polypeptide in a ribosome.

  1. must pick up appropriate amino acids
  2. recognize the appropriate codons in mRNA
110
Q

anticodon

A

Each tRNA is a folded molecule bearing a base triplet on one end

111
Q

where does translation take place?

A

cytoplasm

112
Q

ribosomes

A

structures in cytoplasm that coordinate the functioning of mRNA and tRNA and catalyze the synthesis of polypeptides.

  • made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins
  • have binding sites for tRNAs and mRNA.
113
Q

translation phases

A

initiation, elongation, termination

114
Q

start codon

A

a special initiator tRNA base-pairs with specific codon

115
Q

P side

A

where initiator tRNA fits into a tRNA binding site on the ribosome

116
Q

A side

A

other tRNA binding site

117
Q

Initiation brings together…

A
  • mRNA,
  • a tRNA bearing the first amino acid, and
  • the two subunits of a ribosome.
118
Q

mutation

A

any change to genetic information of a cell or virus

119
Q

nonsense mutation

A

change an amino acid codon to a stop codon

120
Q

mutagens

A

caused by physical or chemical agents

121
Q

virus

A

an infectious particle consisting of little more than “genes in a box”

122
Q

capsid

A

protective coat around a virus

123
Q

lytic cycle

A

When phage DNA enters a lytic cycle inside a bacterium, it is replicated, transcribed, and translated.

124
Q

lysogenic cycle

A

phage DNA inserts into the host chromosome and is passed on to generations of daughter cells.

125
Q

prophage

A

what the phage DNA is referred to once inserted

126
Q

emerging viruses

A

are ones that seem to burst on to the scene, becoming apparent to the medical community quite suddenly.

127
Q

retrovirus

A

uses RNA as a template for making DNA, which then inserts into a host chromosome.

128
Q

reverse transcriptase

A

-retroviruses that carry molecules of an enzyme -catalyzes reverse transcription: the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template.

129
Q

prions

A

infectious proteins that can cause brain diseases in animals.

130
Q

three mechanisms that bacteria use to move genes from cell to cell

A
  1. Transformation is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding environment.
  2. Transduction is gene transfer by phages.
    ​3. Conjugation is the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterial cell.

Biology 101 (BIO 101) (8 decks)

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