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Biology 101 (BIO 101) > Chapters 15-17 > Flashcards

Chapters 15-17 Flashcards

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1
Q

when did earth form

A

about 4.6 billion years ago

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2
Q

how first life may have evolved

A
  1. abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules, such as amino acids and nitrogenous bases
  2. joining of these small molecules into polymers, such as proteins and nucleic acids
  3. packaging of these molecules into “protocells”
  4. origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible
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3
Q

what does O2 tend to do?

A

As a strong oxidizing agent, O2 tends to disrupt chemical bonds.

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4
Q

next 3 stages of life

A
  1. Abiotic synthesis of polymers
  2. Formation of protocells
  3. Self-replicating RNA
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5
Q

macroevolution

A

evolutionary change above the species level. encompasses…

  • the origin of a new group of organisms through a series of speciation events and
  • the impact of mass extinctions on the diversity of life and its subsequent recovery.
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6
Q

radiometric dating

A
  • is based on the decay of radioactive isotopes (unstable forms of an element)
  • can date rocks and fossils.
  • carbon-14 decays to another element
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7
Q

plate tectonics

A

the theory that Earth’s crust is divided into giant, irregularly shaped plates that essentially float on the underlying mantle.

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8
Q

permian extinction

A

linked to the effects of extreme volcanic activity.

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9
Q

cretaceous extinction

A

included most dinosaurs. may have been caused by the impact of an asteroid.

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10
Q

adaptive radiations

A

periods of evolutionary change in which many new species evolve from a common ancestor.

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11
Q

“evo-devo”

A

combines evolutionary and developmental biology.

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12
Q

taxonomy

A

branch of biology concerned with identifying, naming, and classifying species.

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13
Q

binomial

A

two-part scientific name

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14
Q

phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history of a species or group of species

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15
Q

systematics

A

a discipline of biology that focuses on

  • classifying organisms
  • determining their evolutionary relationships.
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16
Q

phylogenetic tree

A

a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships.

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17
Q

analogy

A

Similarity due to convergent evolution

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18
Q

cladistics

A

groups organisms by common ancestry.

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19
Q

clade

A

monophyletic group that consists of an ancestral species and all its evolutionary descendants—a distinct branch in the tree of life.

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20
Q

Cladistics two main types of characters

A
  1. A shared ancestral character

2. A shared derived character

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21
Q

shared ancestral character

A

common to members of a particular clade, but originated in an ancestor that is not a member of the clade.

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22
Q

shared derived character

A

common to members of a particular clade and is not found in its ancestors.

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23
Q

parsimony

A

the adoption of the simplest explanation for observed phenomena.

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24
Q

molecular systematics

A

uses DNA or other molecules to infer relatedness.

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25
Q

molecular clock

A

a method that estimates the time required for a given amount of evolutionary change.

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26
Q

Earliest form of life

A

prokaryotes about 3.5 to 2 billion years ago

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27
Q

origin of single-celled eukaryotes

A

1.8 billion years ago. originated when prokaryotic cells became capable of aerobic respiration or photosynthesis

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28
Q

origin multicellular eukaryotes

A

1.2 billion years ago. larger organisms 600 million years ago.

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29
Q

earth’s eon history

A

hadean, archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic

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30
Q

paedomorphosis

A

the retention in the adult body of structures that were juvenile features in an ancestral species

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31
Q

hierarchical classification of an animal

A

species -> genus -> family => orders => classes => phyla => kingdoms => domains

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32
Q

taxon

A

each taxonomic unit at any level

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33
Q

convergent evolution

A

occurs when similar environments and natural selection produce similar adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages

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34
Q

outgroup

A

a species from a lineage that is closely related to but not part of the group of species we are studying

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35
Q

horizontal gene transfer

A

a process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms such as plasmid exchange and viral infection.

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36
Q

metagenomics

A

researchers collect samples from a particular environment, and isolate and sequence the DNA they contain

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37
Q

microbiome

A

genomes of individual species

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38
Q

microbiota

A

the community of microorganisms that live in and on our bodies

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39
Q

pathogens

A

disease-causing agents

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40
Q

cocci

A

spherical prokaryotic cells.

41
Q

streptococci

A

cocci that occur in chains

42
Q

bacilli

A

rod-shaped prokaryotes

43
Q

3 most common prokaryote cell shapes

A
  1. cocci
  2. bacilli
  3. spiral shape
    a. Relatively short and rigid cells called spirilla and
    b. Longer and more flexible cells called spirochetes.
44
Q

purpose of a cell wall

A
  • provides physical protection

- prevents the cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment

45
Q

Gram-positive bacteria

A

have simpler walls with a relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan

46
Q

peptidoglycan

A

a polymer of sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides

47
Q

gram-negative bacteria

A

less peptidoglycan and are more complex, with an outer membrane that contains lipids bonded to carbohydrates.
-often more toxic and more threatening

48
Q

fimbriae

A

hairlike projections that enable some prokaryotes to stick to a surface or to one another.

49
Q

endospore

A

a specialized resistant cell

50
Q

prokaryotic phototrophs

A

capture energy from sunlight

51
Q

chemotrophs

A

prokaryotes that harness the energy stored in chemicals, either organic or inorganic chemicals

52
Q

autotrophic

A

when organisms make their own organic compounds

53
Q

autotrophs

A

prokaryotes that obtain their carbon atoms from carbon dioxide

54
Q

photoautotrophs

A

prokaryotes that harness sunlight for energy and use C0(2) for carbon

55
Q

photoheterotrophs

A

prokaryotes that obtain energy from sunlight but get their carbon atoms from organic sources

56
Q

chemoautotrophs

A

prokaryotes that harvest energy from inorganic chemicals and use carbon from C0(2) to make organic molecules.

57
Q

chemoheterotrophs

A

prokaryotes that acquire both energy and carbon from organic molecules

58
Q

biofilms

A

highly organized colonies of prokaryotes

59
Q

bioremediation

A

use of organisms to remove pollutants from the soil, air, or water.

60
Q

extreme halophiles

A

archaea that thrive in very salty places

61
Q

extreme thermophiles

A

archaea that thrive in very hot water

62
Q

methanogens

A

archaea that live in anaerobic environments and give of methane as a waste product.

63
Q

proteobacteria

A

bacteria all gram-negative and share a particular rRNA sequence.

64
Q

symbiosis

A

a close association between organisms of two or more species

65
Q

cyanobacteria

A

the only group of prokaryotes with plantlike, oxygen-generating photosynthesis.

66
Q

chlamydias

A

live inside eukaryotic host cells.

67
Q

five groups bacteria

A

-proteobacteria
-gram-positive bacteria
cyanobacteria
-chlamydias
-spirochetes

68
Q

spirochetes

A

helical bacteria that spiral through their environment by means of rotating, internal filaments. include notorious pathogens

69
Q

exotoxins

A

proteins that bacterial cells secrete into their environment

70
Q

endotoxins

A

lipid components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria that are released when the cell dies or is digested by a defensive cell.

71
Q

protists

A

diverse collection of mostly unicellular eukaryotes

72
Q

SAR

A

largest and most diverse supergroup of eukaryotes. Protist clades Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria.

73
Q

diatoms

A

unicellular algae that are one of the most important photosynthetic organisms on Earth

74
Q

charophytes

A

photosynthetic eukaryotes. plants and green algae

75
Q

how do plants maintain moisture?

A

C0(2) and O(2) diffuse across leaf surfaces through stomata (tiny pores)

76
Q

apical meristems

A

growth-producing regions of cell division

77
Q

vascular tissue

A

a network of thick-walled cells joined into narrow tubes that extend throughout the plant body.

78
Q

two types of vascular tissue

A

xylem and phloem

79
Q

xylem

A

include dead cells that form microscopic pipes conveying water and minerals up from the roots

80
Q

phloem

A

consists entirely of living cells. distributes sugars throughout the plants

81
Q

lignin

A

thickens and reinforces the cell walls of some plant tissues

82
Q

gametangia

A

gametes in male and female structures

83
Q

pollen grains

A

structures that contain the sperm-producing cells

84
Q

seed

A

consists of an embryo packaged with a food supply within a protective covering

85
Q

alternation of generations

A

the diploid and haploid stages are distinct, multicellular bodies

86
Q

gametophyte

A

haploid generation of a plant produces gametes

87
Q

sporophyte

A

diploid generation produces spores

88
Q

pollination

A

when a pollen grain lands on a compatible female structure, it undergoes mitosis to produce a sperm

89
Q

fruit

A

ripened ovary of a flower

90
Q

hyphae

A

feeding structures of a fungus that are a network of threadlike filaments

91
Q

mycorrhiza

A

symbiosis between fungi and plant roots

92
Q

mold

A

any rapidly growing fungus that reproduces asexually by producing spores

93
Q

yeast

A

any single-celled fungus

94
Q

lichens

A

symbiotic associations of millions of microscopic green algae or cyanobacteria held in a mass of fungal hyphae

95
Q

what opportunities did life on land offer adaptations?

A
  • bright and abundant sunlight,
  • abundant atmospheric CO2,
  • initially, few pathogens or plant-eating animals.
96
Q

disadvantages that life on land had

A
  • maintain moisture inside their cells,
  • support the body in a nonbuoyant medium,
  • reproduce and disperse offspring without water,
  • anchor their bodies in soil
  • obtain resources from soil and air.
97
Q

Three key events occurred in the history of the plant kingdom.

A
  1. Origin of land plants
  2. Origin of vascular plants
  3. Origin of seed plants
98
Q

bryophytes

A

include mosses, hornworts, and liverworts

Biology 101 (BIO 101) (8 decks)

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