Chapters 6 & 10: Learning and emotion/motivation

Question 1

What is motivation?

Answer 1

The wants or needs that direct behavior towards a goal

Question 2

What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Answer 2

IM: Arising from internal factors and performed for personal satisfaction
EM: Arising from external factors and performed to recieve something from others

Question 3

What is the over-justification theory?

(motivation)

Answer 3

When an external reward decreases a person’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task they previously enjoyed for its own sake

Question 4

What is the cognitive-evaluation theory?

(motivation)

Answer 4

A reward perceived as control decreases intrinsic motivation

Question 5

What is the biological perspective of motivation?

Answer 5

William James:
behavior was driven by insticts which aid survival

Drive theory

Question 6

What is drive theory?

Answer 6

The idea that deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs

We want to function at moderate arousal

Question 7

What is the arousal motive?

Answer 7

• The motive to maintain an optimal level of psychological activation
• Yerkes-Dodson Law (Optimal performance) (simple = high)

Question 8

What is the yerkes-dodson law?

Answer 8

• Simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high
• Complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower

Question 9

What does self-efficacy refer to?

Answer 9

An individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task

Albert Bandura: theorized that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in motivating behavior

Question 10

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 10

A theory that outlines the progression of needs from physiological to self-actualization

physiological, security, social, esteem, self-actualization

Question 11

What are the three precursors to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 11

1. The external environment
2. Preconditions for needs satisfaction: Freedom, justice, orderliness
3. Challenge (stimulation)

Question 12

What are reflexes and instincts?

Answer 12

Reflexes: motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment
* Involve the activity of specific body parts/systems

Instincts: innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events
* Ex. maturation and the change of season

Question 13

What is associative learning?

Answer 13

Learning that occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli and/or events

Question 14

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 14

Learning to associate events or stimuli that repeatedly occur together

A stimulus and a response

Pavlov

Question 15

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 15

Organims learn to associate events

A behavior and its concequence

B.F. Skinner

Question 16

What is an unconditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response?

(classical conditioning)

Answer 16

UCS: a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism
* The dog salivating each time meat powder was presented to them

UCR: a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus
* The dog’s salivation

BOTH ARE NOT LEARNED. THEY’RE REFLEXES

Question 17

In Pavlov’s experiments, what does the pairing of meat powder and salivation represent?

Answer 17

The unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response

Question 18

What is a neutral stimulus?

Answer 18

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response

Example: Pavlov sounding a tone (a bell)
Tone (NS) + meat powder (UCS) = salivation (UCR)

Question 19

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS) and a conditioned response (CR)?

Answer 19

CS: A stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
CR: The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus

BOTH ARE LEARNED

Tone (CS) –> salivation (CR)

Question 20

What is higher-order/second-order conditioning?

Answer 20

Using the conditioned stimulus to condition another stimulus

can opener (cs) + food (usc) = salivation (ucr)
cabinet door (sos) + co (cs) = salivation (cr)
cabinet door (sos) = salivation (cr)

Question 21

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Answer 21

When an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

The neutral stimulus elicits the conditioned response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself

Question 22

What is taste aversion?

(classical conditioning)

Answer 22

A type of conditioning where there is a delay between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus

Example: Feeling nauseous after eating too much candy

Question 23

What occurs during extinction in classical conditioning?

Answer 23

A decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus

Question 24

What is spontaneous recovery?

(classical conditioning)

Answer 24

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period

Question 25

What is stimulus discrimination versus generalization?

Answer 25

**Discrimination:** When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar **Generalization:** When an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Question 26

Who is considered the founder of behaviorism?

Answer 26

John B. Watson

Question 27

What does the law of effect state?

Answer 27

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated; those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated ## Footnote B. F. Skinner

Question 28

What are negative and positive reinforcements?

Answer 28

**PR:** A desirable stimulus is added to inc. a behavior **NR:** An undesirable stimulus is removed to inc. a behavior ## Footnote Positive: Offering money for cleaning a room Negative: The beep a car makes stops when the seatbelt is donned

Question 29

What are the two types of negative reinforcement?

Answer 29

**Escape learning:** Ending something averse **Avoidance learning:** Preventing something averse ## Footnote EL: seatbelt to **terminate** noise AL: seatbelt to **avoid** noise

Question 30

What are positive and negative punishments?

Answer 30

**PP:** Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior **NP:** removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior ## Footnote PP: Scolding a child for misbehavior NP: taking away favorite toy when kid is naughty

Question 31

What is shaping in behaviorism? | (Operant conditioning)

Answer 31

* Rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior * Behaviors are broken down into small, achievable steps * Reward closer and closer attempts

Question 32

What are primary and secondary reinforcers?

Answer 32

**PR:** Reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities and are not learned **SR:** Has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer ## Footnote PR: Water, food, sleep SR: Money when used to buy goods

Question 33

What are continuous reinforcement vs partial reinforcement?

Answer 33

**CR:** When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior **PR:** An organism does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior

Question 34

Describe the types of reinforcement schedules | (fixed, variable, interval, ratio)

Answer 34

* **Fixed:** A fixed amount of responses or time between reinforcements which is **unchanging** * **Variable:** number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements which **changes** * **Interval:** schedule is based on **time** between reinforcements * **Ratio:** number of **responses** between reinforcements

Question 35

What does the term latent learning refer to?

Answer 35

Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it ## Footnote Hint: Latent is the hint like latent fingerprints

Question 36

What is observational learning?

Answer 36

Learning by watching others and then imitating their behavior

Question 37

What is vicarious reinforcement versus punishment?

Answer 37

**VR:** if you observed a model being reinforced for their behavior, you are more likely to copy them **VP:** Observing a model being punished, making you less likely to copy them ## Footnote Observational learning is often why victims of abuse can grow to become abusers