chapter 9; major minerals and water Flashcards
1
Q
those that eat [..] sodium diets, have a lower prevalence of high blood pressure than do populations that consume [..] amounts of sodium, primarily through salt foods, sauces, and condiments, such as the Japanese.
A
low
higher
2
Q
the minerals sodium and [..] seemed to work against each other when it came to the effect on blood pressure - potassium [..] against hypertension whereas sodium [..] the risk
A
potassium
protected
increased
3
Q
on average, we ingest [..]% more than the Tolderable Upper intake level (UL) set by the Heath and Medicine Division
A
50%
(no wonder that one in three Americans have hypertension)
4
Q
less than [..]% of males and less than […]% of females achieve AI levels of potassium intake
A
25%
1%
5
Q
high consumption of sodium and low consumption of potassium work in concert to threaten health, increasing the risk of death from any cause by [..]% and [..] the risk of death from heart attacks
A
50%
doubling
6
Q
sodium and potassium are two of the 14 minerals that are essential for growth, reproduction, and life; and as many as [..] additional minerals may perform functional roles in the body
A
14
8
7
Q
minerals are solid, stable [..] elements (substances that are composed of single atoms). unlike vitamins, minerals can’t be broken down into smaller constituents or [..] by heat, light, cooking, or digestion
A
inorganic
destroyed
8
Q
minerals have a variety of important jobs in the body, such as maintaining proper [..] balance and [..] growth and maintenance
A
fluid
bone
9
Q
water is also an essential nutrient for the human body, and it maintains health in multiple ways. of the macronutrients, water is arguably the most critical and indispensable
A
yes
10
Q
because water is central to all of our body functions, we can survive only a few [..] without it, whereas we can survive [..] without food
A
days
weeks
11
Q
major minerals (sometimes called “macro” minerals) have a daily require of [..] milligrams (mg) or more, and trace minerals (sometimes called “micro” minerals) have a daily require of less than 100 mg
A
100 100
12
Q
the major minerals include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur
A
yes
(normal sounding elements)
13
Q
the essential trace minerals are iron, since, copper, iodine, selenium, molybdenum, and manganese
+ additional trace minerals; chromium and fluoride (have AIs, but little or no evidence (respectively) that they are essential nutrients)
A
yes
(sounds like iron minerals/metal)
14
Q
overall, minerals make up about [..]% of our body [..], with major minerals composing more and trace minerals composing less
A
4%
weight
15
Q
minerals often function as parts of [..] and [..], participating in [..] reactions, transmit [..] impulses, maintain [..] balance, and support the [..] system.
A
enzymes, hormones
chemical, nerve, fluid, immune
16
Q
minerals can also work with enzymes as [..], inorganic substances that facilitate and catalyze chemical reactions
A
cofactors
17
Q
like many of the B vitamins, minerals also play roles in the energy metabolism, the chemical reactions that release [..] from food
A
energy
18
Q
minerals also help build and maintain structural components in the body, such as [..], [..], cell [..], and [..] tissue.
A
bones, teeth, membranes, connective
19
Q
minerals are ions, elements with a positive or negative charge due to their [..] numbers of protons and electrons. the charges of mineral ions, whether positive or negative, allow them to participate in chemical reactions and bond with other molecules
A
unequal
20
Q
minerals can’t be [..] by the body, so they must be ingested through diet. yet they also have a [..] range of safe intake
A
synthesized
narrow
21
Q
we couldn’t live without any sodium, but we often get too much of it along with too little potassium, which increases the risk for high blood pressure and chronic disease
(intake of minerals above the recommended levels can also have other adverse effects, including gastrointestinal problems)
A
yes
22
Q
overconsumption of minerals rarely occur through food alone
A
yes
23
Q
humans absorb most minerals in the [..] intestine, and both active and passive processes transport them into the [..] for distribution and use throughout the body
A
small
blood
24
Q
mineral absorption is influenced by their bioavailability, the ability of nutrients to be [..] and [..] in the body, which is itself affected by various factors. one such factor is nutritional status.
A
absorbed
utilized
25
when a person is deficient in a mineral or the needs for that mineral have increased, the absorption and bioavailability of that minerals tends to [increase or decrease]. for instance, during pregnancy, a woman's body absorbs calcium more [..] than usual. likewise, people absorb [more or less] minerals if they already have adequate amounts in the body
increase
efficiently
less
26
although absorption of minerals often [..] during overconsumption - it doesn't stop - so it is still possible to consume excess, or even toxic, amounts of minerals. when ,mineral levels in the body increase, the excess is typically excreted in the urine
slows
urine
27
the presence of dietary elements called binders can also influence mineral [..]. binders such as phytates, found in whole cereal grains; oxalates, found in spinach and some vegetables; and polyphenols, present in coffee and tea, can limit bioavailability by chemically [..] to minerals
absorption
binding
28
minerals can also [..] with one another for absorption.
e.g. excess iron consumption from supplements can interfere with zinc absorption.
compete
29
the presence of certain vitamins can also affect [..] of minerals. vitamin D, e.g. actually boosts absorption of calcium and phosphorus
bioavailability
30
the best way to get essential minerals is to eat an adequate, varied, and balanced diet.
yes
31
tap water, can be a source of some essential minerals: "[..]" water, which is more commonly found in the US, typically contains more calcium and magnesium, whereas "[..]" water contains more sodium, which is added in proportion to the "hardness" of the water source
hard
soft
32
mineral content in tap water, whether hard or soft, can vary regionally and according got treatment methods. tap water may contribute as little as [..]% of overall intake of calcium or magnesium but can add around [..]% with consumption of approximately 2 liters a day in some areas. likewise, consuming 2 liters of "soft" tap water generally contributes rather contributes rather insignificant amounts of sodium to overall intake, but in some areas, it can add up to almost half of the daily sodium recommendations.
6%
30%
33
side note; to find out what minerals are present in significant amounts in your water, refer to the annual municipal water report for the area in which you live
yes
34
minerals in plants reflect the mineral content of the [..] in which they are grown.because of this, mineral content can vary drastically depending on the region in which the plants are grown and faming practices used to grow them.
soil
35
[..] foods are typically a better source of minerals, in part because animals eat plants and concentrate their nutrients. (as a result, vegans and vegetarians may be at higher risk of [..] in the minerals that are typically concentrated in animal foods such as calcium, iron, and zinc)
animal
deficiencies
36
processing and refining foods can sometimes boost, but more often reduce, mineral content.
reduce
for instance, when cereal grains are refined and milled, they lose a portion of many important minerals and only iron is added back through enrichment
37
to maximize mineral intake then, individuals should emphasize eating [..], unprocessed foods. and although cooking itself does not degrade or break down minerals, boiling foods can result in the leaching (or loss) of a varying amount of minerals into the cooking [..] - thus the recommendation to use that cooking water in sauces or soups whenever possible
whole
water
38
bones are the structural component of the body that shield our brain and organs from [..] and make it possible to [..]
injury
move
39
minerals make up approximately [..] thirds of the mass of the skeletal system and are involved in [..] and maintenance of cellular [..] and [..] tissues.
two
growth
membranes , connective
40
three major minerals of particular importance of bone formation and maintenance are [..], [..], and [..], with crystals of primarily calcium and phosphorus laid down on a matrix of proteins (predominantly collagen, a structural protein found in connective tissue) during bone formation
calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium
41
- the skeleton is not inert, but it is an active [..] made up of tissue and cells in a [..] state of activity
- [..] and [..] are the main components of the skeleton
- magnesium contributes to the [..] and [..] of bones and makes teeth harder. magnesium is essential for [..] and [..] of calcium
- crystals of bone mineral are deposited on a matrix of [..], which is comprised primarily of collagen
- organ, continual
- calcium and phosphorus
- strength and firmness, absorption, metabolism
- protein
42
bone remodeling ; bone tissue is continually remodeled as some cells break down bone and others rebuild it
break
rebuild
43
magnesium makes up about [..]% of bone mineral,. it is found primary on the surface of calcium/phosphorus crystals
1%
44
calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral in the body, with [..]% found in bones and teeth, where it provides an essential structural component for their formation. the other [..]% is located in the body cells and fluids, where it is necessary for many essential functions such as blood clotting, hormone secretion, muscle contraction, and nerve transmission
99%
1%
45
bones provide a reservoir of calcium that can be tapped to supply calcium to body [..] when its concentration in blood decrease.
fluids
46
because so many critical body functions depend on calcium, its concentration in blood is tightly [..] so that it remains nearly constant regardless of [..] intake.
regulated
dietary
47
when calcium in blood falls even slightly, it is released from [..] to maintain steady calcium levels. the process by which the body maintains calcium levels in the blood is known as calcium [..].
bone
homeostasis
48
when blood calcium levels fall, the [..] gland releases parathyroid hormone (PTH), which stimulates the the production of the active form of vitamin [..] (calcitriol) and thereby increases calcium absorption from the [..]. PTH and activated vitamin D work together to [..] calcium from the bones and decrease calcium [..] from the kidneys
parathyroid, D
intestine
mobilize
excretion
49
calcium plays an indispensable role in [..] and [..] formation. in fact, bone is constantly being broken down and rebuilt in a process known as bone remodeling. bone remodeling is necessary to maintain blood [..] levels; it is also required during bone [..] in the young and in bone [..] throughout life to allow bone to adapt to strain and to repair the microscopic damage that occurs daily
bone, tooth
calcium
growth , maintenance
50
RDA; women [..] mg (19-70), men [..] mg (19-50)
UL; [..] mg
1000, 2500
2500
51
calcium rich foods include milk, yogurt, and cheese, as well as some legumes and certain dark green leafy vegetables such as Chinese cabbage, kale, and broccoli. because these vegetables are low in oxalates, the bioavailability of calcium is high; about [..]% is absorbed
50
52
although spinach is high in calcium, it is also high in oxalates that bind calcium and inhibit its absorption. consequently, the bioavailability of calcium in spinach is low: only about [..]% is absorbed
absorption
5%
53
calcium is also added to some grains, juices, tofu, and cereals . milk, an excellent natural source of calcium, also is usually fortified with vitamin D, which works with calcium to promote [..] health
bone
54
most studies indicate that calcium from [..] is better absorbed than calcium from [..]. this is likely due to improved [..] with meals and the tendency of people to consume [..] amount of calcium more frequently, which likely improves absorption efficiency
food, supplements
absorption, smaller
55
with age, the balance of calcium [..] and [..] in bone changes. during years of growth, such as childhood, more calcium is [..] to bone in relation to the amount lost, but as we get older, bone breakdown often [..]
release, deposition
added, exceeds
56
peak bone mass is established at around age [..], so it is important, during the formative years of bone development, to consume adequate amounts of [..] and vitamin [..]. if intake is low or absorption is impaired, bone loss occurs because the body uses the calcium in [..] to maintain blood levels and support calcium dependent bodily functions
30
calcium, vitamin D
loss, bone
57
although some bone loss is a normal consequence of aging, bone loss [..] in postmenopausal women because of low levels of the hormone [..]. this reduced bone mass, or bone density, along with reduced mineral content can lead to a condition called osteopenia
accelerates
postmenopausal, estrogen
58
when osteopenia becomes severe and bone loss worsens to cause bones to be [..] and [..], a person develops osteoporosis, or "porous bones" and the risk of bone fracture is increased dramatically
fragile, porous
(afflicts more than 10 million Americans; approx. one half of all women and one quarter of all men older than 50 years of age experience osteoporosis related bone fracture)
59
osteoporosis related bone fractures are particular worrisome as the risk of mortality increases by as much as [..] times in the first four months following an osteoporosis related fracture. therefore it is critically important to maintain an [..] intake of calcium and vitamin D from foods (but not supplements) throughout our lives, as this is clearly linked to reduced risk of osteoporosis
four
adequate
60
risk factors for osteoporosis include advanced [..] as well as a history of [..], [..], excess [..] consumption, and a family [..] of osteoporosis. to reduce their risk, individuals should maintain a healthy diet with adequate intake of calcium and vitamins D and K throughout life.
age
inactivity
smoking, alcohol, history
61
it is important to participate in regular [..] bearing exercises, such as walking, running, or tennis, as well as perform [..] exercises to maintain bone health and reduce risk of osteoporosis
weight
resistance
62
vitamin K is needed for the functioning of several proteins that are involved in regulating bone [..]. some studies have found that the risk of bone fracture decreases as intake of vitamin K increases.
formation
63
the decline in the hormone [..] that occurs at menopause accelerates bone loss
estrogen
64
studies show that more than [..]% of women older than 60 years take calcium supplements, which could push their intake close to the UL
60%
65
evidence that calcium supplements (either with or without vitamin D) improve bone health and decrease bone fracture is [..] and [..].
inconsistent
controversial
66
although adequate calcium intake from food may be associated with decreased incidence of atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing of the arteries), recent evidence links long term calcium supplementation with calcification of the coronary arteries and an increased risk of atherosclerosis in older adults
yes
67
higher intake (calcium), typically through supplementation or fortified foods, may cause [..] and can interfere with iron absorption. although rare in healthy people, excess intake may contribute to hypercalcemia, or excess calcium in the blood.
constipation
iron
68
although there is little evidence that high calcium supplements alone promote the formation of [..] stones, there is some evidence that their risk may be [..] when taking supplements that contain both vitamin D and calcium
kidney
increased
69
magnesium (Mg) is a cofactor in more than [..] chemical reactions in the body. an adult body contains about [...] grams of magnesium. most of it - about 50-60% - is found in the [..]; the rest is in the cells and [..] of the body
300
25
bones. fluids
70
magnesium plays a role in the transport of [..] across the cell membrane, a process that is important to [..] contraction, [..] impulse condition, and maintenance of the rhythm of the [..].
ions
muscles, nerve, heart
71
magnesium is involved in extracting [..] from carbohydrates, fats, and protein, as well as using that energy to perform work; it also plays a role in [..] production. also necessary to convert vitamin D into its active form (calcitriol) to increase [..] absorption; thus magnesium plays an important role in bone health
energy, protein, calcium
72
approximately [..]% of American adults do not consume the recommended intake of magnesium, but outright deficiency symptoms are [..], because the [..] limit excretion when intake is low and the body may absorb more
50%, rare, kidneys
73
however, with its important role in bone health, habitual low intakes of magnesium may [..] the risk of osteoporosis.
increase
74
marginal or moderate magnesium deficient have also been linked to [increased or decreased] risk of atherosclerosis , type 2 diabetes, and hypertension
increased
75
in addition, studies have shown that people who suffer from migraine headaches have lower blood level of [..]
magnesium
76
excess consumption from food is rare, but high intake through supplements can result in diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramping
yes
77
magnesium toxicity has been reported with very large doses of magnesium containing [..] and [..].
laxatives
antacids
78
phosphorus (P) is the [..] most abundant mineral in the body and it present in every [..] of the body
second
cell
79
phosphorus plays a critical role in bone health and is an essential component of bone cartilage, phospholipids, DNA, and RNA. it is also involved in [..] metabolism, and a multitude of enzymes and other proteins depend upon phosphorus to regulate their [..]
energy, activity
80
phosphorus is important in the maintenance of proper acid base balance in the body
yes
81
phosphorus deficiency is [..], in part because the mineral is found in most [..] rich foods such as meats and dairy and because many food additives also contain phosphorus. there is some concern that Americans may be chronically over consuming phosphorus, a potential problem considering that increased blood levels of the mineral have associated with cardiovascular and other types of chronic diseases, particular in people with [..] disease
rare
protein, kidney
82
sulfur (S) is a mineral that occurs in our diet as a competitive of other compounds
yes
83
sulfur is present in the [..] vitamins thiamin and biotin, and it is present in two of the amino acids (cysteine and methionine) that are found in our body's proteins as well as those we eat
B
84
we need to synthesize sulfur containing compounds the ultimate source of that sulfur is almost invariantly one of those amino acids. because sulfur is a component of all proteins, deficiency is virtually unknown. toxicity is rare because the body can excrete excess sulfur in the urine
yes
85
the minerals sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chloride (Cl) maintain fluid balance in the body, transmit nerve impulses, and help muscles contract
page 285
86
nerve and muscle function for major minerals
sodium, calcium, potassium
87
energy metabolism major minerals;
iron, phosphorus
88
What are electrolytes?
Electrolytes are charged minerals like sodium, potassium, and chloride that help control fluid balance.
89
How does water move in the body?
Water moves by osmosis, flowing from areas with low solute concentration to areas with high solute concentration.
90
Where is sodium (Na+) primarily located?
Sodium (Na+) is mostly outside the cell (extracellular fluid) and pulls water out of cells.
91
Where is potassium (K+) primarily located?
Potassium (K+) is mostly inside the cell (intracellular fluid) and pulls water into cells.
92
What role does chloride (Cl-) play in fluid balance?
Chloride (Cl-) works with sodium to maintain fluid balance and blood pressure.
93
How do kidneys regulate water balance?
The kidneys regulate water balance by adjusting how much sodium and potassium are excreted in urine.
94
What happens when the body is dehydrated?
When dehydrated, the pituitary gland releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) to signal the kidneys to conserve water.
95
How are electrolytes lost from the body?
Electrolytes are lost through sweat, urine, and bowel movements, especially during exercise or illness.
96
What percentage of body weight is water?
Water makes up 60 percent of our body weight.
97
What are the essential functions of water?
Water is essential for transporting nutrients and waste, regulating body temperature, lubricating joints, protecting organs, helping with digestion, and acting as a solvent for chemical reactions.
98
How is water lost from the body?
Water is lost through urine, sweat, breathing, and bowel movements.
99
What are signs of dehydration?
Signs of dehydration include dark urine, fatigue, headache, and dizziness.
100
What can severe dehydration cause?
Severe dehydration can cause confusion, rapid heartbeat, and even death.
101
How much water do men need daily?
Men need around 3.7 liters (15 cups) per day.
102
How much water do women need daily?
Women need around 2.7 liters (11 cups) per day.
103
Where does some of our water intake come from?
About 20 percent of our water intake comes from food like fruits and veggies.
104
What does thirst indicate?
Thirst is a sign you're already slightly dehydrated.
105
Why are older adults more prone to dehydration?
Older adults have a weaker thirst signal, making them more prone to dehydration.
106
Who needs more water?
Athletes and people in hot climates need more water to replace fluid lost through sweat.
107
What effect do caffeine and alcohol have on water loss?
Caffeine and alcohol are diuretics, meaning they increase water loss through urine.
108
How can you remember electrolyte functions?
Sodium = Salt (outside the cell), Potassium = Banana (inside the cell), Chloride = Pool water (works with sodium for balance).
109
the Adequate intake (AI) of total water (from foods, beverages, and water) for men and women
women; [..] L
men; [..] L
women; 2.7
men; 3.7
110
The body maintains fluid balance by moving [..] to where more water is needed. However, the level of electrolytes in your body can become too low or too high. That can happen when the amount of water in your body changes, upsetting fluid balance and causing [..] or even [..].
electrolytes
dehydration, overhydration
111
Our bodies are approximately [..]–[..]% water, but the ratio of water to other substances in our [..] varies, depending primarily on the ratio of [..] mass to [..] body mass (body composition), which is strongly influenced by age and sex.
60-70%
tissues, fat, lean
112
The body of an adult man is approximately [..]% water and an adult woman is about [..]% water—with water composing about 75% of the mass of [..] and 15% of [..] tissue mass (fat).
60%
55%
muscle , adipose
113
As people age, they typically lose muscle mass and gain fat, which will decrease the percent of body mass made up of water. Organs have different water percentages, too: The brain and heart are made of approximately 73% water, but bone is only 10% water.
114
water helps regulate body temperature within a very narrow range, which is important because even slight variations can affect body functions and damage organs (think how a fever of 102 F - which is slightly higher than three degrees above normal - makes you feel)
115
The temperature of water rises [..], and because of this and the fact that there is so much of it in your body, water provides an important “brake” from unhealthy body temperature [..].
slowly , fluctuations
116
Water [..] nutrients and oxygen to tissues in your body. It is also present in the mucus and salivary juices of the digestive system, which help to move food through the digestive tract. Water also lubricates joints and mucous membranes in our noses, eyes, and the gastrointestinal tract. Because water can’t be compressed, it helps to [..] delicate tissues such as the brain, eyes, and spinal cord against injury and shock.
transports , protect
117
Water acts as a solvent—a liquid substance that is capable of [..] another substance—and participates in the body’s [..] reactions. For instance, without water, our bodies can’t [..] down proteins, carbohydrates, or fats to extract energy. Water also helps to remove waste from the body via urination, perspiration, and bowel movements.
dissolving , biochemical , break
118
Approximately two-thirds of the water in our bodies is intracellular, or found [..] cells. The rest is extracellular, found [..] cells, primarily in the [..] and the fluid that surrounds our cells (interstitial fluid).
inside, outside, blood
119
We lose, on average, about 350 ml, or 1 1/2 cups, of water each day through respiration, the process of transporting oxygen from the air to the cells within tissues (inhalation) and, conversely, transporting carbon dioxide to the air (exhalation). When we breathe, water evaporates from the lungs and the skin
120
How much water we lose while respiring depends on the [.] temperature and our [..] temperature, how [..] we are, how [..] the air is, and how [..] our bodies are. The more we respire—for instance, when we exercise and breathe hard—the more water we lose.
air, body, active, humid, big
121
We lose [..] ml to [..] ml of water, or about two-thirds of a cup, through our bowel movements, too. The amount of water lost in this way is small because most of the water in our stools is [..] into the body before the stool is eliminated.
140 , 150, reabsorbed
122
Diarrhea, however, can dramatically increase water loss, which can be dangerous: Diarrhea-associated dehydration is a major cause of child [..] in areas of the world that do not have access to clean water, as contaminated water can cause diarrheal illnesses. When we suffer diarrhea, we lose from 3300 ml to 7300 ml of water a day—as much as [..] times what we would lose through normal bowel movements.
death, 70
123
Our water needs can fluctuate because of other factors as well. We need more water when we are ill, because we respire more with a fever and our body perspires to [..] itself
cool
124
vomiting also increases water [..]
loss
125
Furthermore, we need more water when we eat high-protein diets, in part because water is necessary to remove the [..] of protein metabolism that accumulate in the [..]. High-fiber diets increase our water needs, too, because fiber increases the water content of our [..], making it easier for us to pass them by products
by products , blood
stools
126
Water needs are increased when we drink alcohol, take certain medications, and spend time at high altitudes.
yes
127
Water balance in our body is ensured when the amount of water we consume in food and drinks and the amount we produce through metabolism equals the amount of water we excrete. Our kidneys and our brain are working to maintain this balance.
128
The kidneys conserve water by [..] urine volume when necessary, and they excrete excess water by increasing the [..] of urine and making it more [..] when we have excess fluid.
reducing
volume, dilute
129
When the concentration of solutes in the blood increases (or when blood volume drops), the brain responds by stimulating the pituitary to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH tells the [..] to conserve water to bring back more water into the [..], which will also lower the concentration of solutes. When the brain detects that water volume has increased again, it [..] the production of ADH so that the kidneys stop conserving water. Without ADH, urine becomes very dilute.
kidneys, blood stream, decreases
130
Thirst is typically a powerful and rapid barometer that tells us when we need to drink (and conversely, lack of thirst tells us we don’t need to drink).
yes
131
The same factors (an increase in solutes in the blood or a drop in blood volume) that stimulate the release of ADH also stimulate the brain to generate the sensation of [..]. So in the end, ADH and thirst work in concert to increase body fluids and decrease the concentration of solutes in blood. However, in those over the age of [..], the thirst sensation is diminished when they become dehydrated or experience increased solute concentrations in blood, which slows the [..] of fluid balance.
thirst, 65, restoration
132
the Health and Medicine Division of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine set an AI value of 3.7 liters (about
15 1/2 cups) of total water intake (combining the amount in drinking water, beverages, and foods) per day for men living in temperate climates and 2.7 liters (about
11 1/2 cups) per day for women living in temperate climates.
133
The AI totals include water from a combination of food, drinking water, and other beverages. Current consumption patterns indicate that fluids provide about 80% of our total water intake, with plain water making up about 45% of those fluids and other beverages making up the rest. Therefore, the AI for fluids is 3.0 liters for men and 2.2 liters for women. (Both tap and bottled water are considered safe to drink; the EPA regulates the former, whereas the FDA regulates the latter, and they have similar standards.) The body also produces a small amount of water as a byproduct of metabolic reactions, which helps meet our total water needs.
134
Some athletes release excess ADH when exercising vigorously for long periods, making the kidneys [..] water. water intoxication, or hyponatremia, a condition in which sodium levels in the blood become [..] because of increased blood volume.
retain, low
135
Unfortunately, the symptoms of hyponatremia sometimes mimic the symptoms of dehydration, or deficiency of water, A variety of symptoms are associated with dehydration, including nausea, dizziness, elevated temperature, and concentrated urine.
136
Dehydration is typically caused by excessive [..], excessive [..] output (because of use of a diuretic—medication that helps rid the body of extra water and sodium—or uncontrolled [..]), fever, vomiting, or diarrhea.seating , urine
sweating, urine, diabetes
137
To distinguish between hyponatremia and dehydration, some city marathons now test blood [..] concentrations in unwell athletes before deciding whether to treat for dehydration (which might involve saline) or for hyponatremia (which involves a hypertonic, or high-sodium, solution).
sodium
138
