Chapter 9

Question 1

There are no clear-cut rules for setting the stage, except that the experimental setting must seem

Answer 1

plausible to the participants, nor are there any clear-cut rules for translating conceptual variables into specific operations. Exactly how the variable is manipulated depends on the variable and the cost, practicality, and ethics of the procedures being considered.

Question 2

straightforward manipulations

Answer 2

manipulate variables with instructions and stimulus presentations. Stimuli may be presented verbally, in written form, via videotape, or with a computer.

Question 3

staged manipulation or event manipulation

Answer 3

Sometimes it is necessary to stage events during the experiment in order to manipulate the independent variable successfully.

Question 4

Staged manipulations are most frequently used for two reasons.

Answer 4

First, the researcher may be trying to create some psychological state in the participants, such as frustration, anger, or a temporary lowering of self-esteem. Second, a staged manipulation may be necessary to simulate some situation that occurs in the real world.

Question 5

Staged manipulations frequently employ a

Answer 5

confederate (sometimes termed an “accomplice”).

Question 6

confederate

Answer 6

A person posing as a participant in an experiment who is actually part of the experiment.

Question 7

Staged manipulations are designed to involve participants in a situation that becomes a real experience.

Answer 7

True

Question 8

A staged experiment may be difficult to replicate by other researchers.

Answer 8

True

Question 9

Presenting participants with one of three versions of a written confession to a crime is an example of an event manipulation.

Answer 9

False

Question 10

In some staged manipulations, a confederate appears to be another participant in an experiment but is actually part of the manipulation.

Answer 10

True

Question 11

To study helping behavior, a confederate of the experimenter drops a stack of papers in front of one individual or a group of five people. The amount of time it takes for the confederate to receive help picking up the papers is the dependent variable. The manipulation employed in this experiment would be an example of a straightforward manipulation.

Answer 11

False

Question 12

The simplest experimental design has two levels of the

Answer 12

independent variable. In planning the experiment, the
researcher has to choose these levels. A general principle to follow is to make the manipulation as strong as possible. A strong manipulation maximizes the differences between the two groups and increases the chances that the independent variable will have a statistically significant effect on the dependent variable.

Question 13

A strong manipulation is particularly important in the early stages of research, when the researcher is most
interested in demonstrating that a relationship

Answer 13

does, in fact, exist

Question 14

The principle of using the strongest manipulation possible should be tempered by at least two
considerations.

Answer 14

The first concerns the external validity of a study: The strongest possible manipulation may entail a situation that rarely, if ever, occurs in the real world. A second consideration is ethics: A manipulation should be as strong as possible within the bounds of ethics. A strong manipulation of fear or anxiety, for example, might not be possible because of the potential
physical and psychological harm to participants.

Question 15

manipulation that uses straightforward presentation of written or verbal material is less costly than

Answer 15

a complex, staged experimental manipulation. Some government and private agencies offer grants for research; because much research is costly, continued public support of these agencies is very important.

Question 16

Self-reports

Answer 16

can be used to measure attitudes, liking for someone,
judgments about someone’s personality characteristics, intended behaviors, emotional states, attributions
about why someone performed well or poorly on a task, confidence in one’s judgments, and many other
aspects of human thought and behavior. The most commonly used rating scales are those with descriptive
anchors (endpoints).

Question 17

Behavioral measures

Answer 17

are direct observations of behaviors. As with self-reports, it is possible to measure an almost endless number of behaviors. Sometimes the researcher may record whether a given behavior occurs. Often the researcher needs to quantify observed behaviors

Question 18

to quantify observed behaviors

Answer 18

+ Rate of a behavior: how many times the behavior occurs in a give time period.
+ Reaction time: how quickly a response occurs after a stimulus.
+ Duration: how long a behavior persists

Question 19

Sometimes the behavioral measure is not an actual behavior but a

Answer 19

behavioral intention or choice.

Question 20

Physiological measures

Answer 20

are recordings of responses of the body. Many
such measurements are available; examples include the galvanic skin response (GSR), electromyogram
(EMG), and electroencephalogram (EEG)

Question 21

The GSR is a measure of

Answer 21

general emotional arousal and anxiety; it measures the electrical conductance of the skin, which changes when sweating occurs

Question 22

The EMG measures

Answer 22

muscle tension and is frequently used as a measure of tension or stress.

Question 23

The EEG is a measure of

Answer 23

electrical activity of brain cells. It can be used to record general brain arousal as a response to different situations, such as activity in certain parts of the brain as learning occurs or brain activity during different stages of sleep.

Question 24

An MRI provides

Answer 24

an image of an individual’s brain structure. It allows scientists to compare the brain structure of individuals
with a particular condition (e.g., a cognitive impairment, schizophrenia, or attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder) with the brain structure of people without the condition.

Question 25

a functional MRI (fMRI) allows researchers to scan areas of the brain while a research participant performs a physical or cognitive task. The data provide

Answer 25

evidence for what brain processes are involved in these tasks.

Question 26

Although it is convenient to describe single dependent variables, most studies include

Answer 26

more than one dependent measure.

Question 27

One reason to use multiple measures stems from the fact that

Answer 27

a variable can be measured in a variety of concrete ways

Question 28

When you have more than one dependent measure, the question of

Answer 28

order arises. The issue is similar to the order effects. There are two possible ways of responding to this issue. If it appears that the problem is serious, the order of presenting the measures can be counterbalanced using the techniques
described in the chapter “Experimental Design”.