Chapter 1 Flashcards
illusory correlation (Intuition and Anecdote heading)
a cognitive bias that occurs when we focus
on two events that stand out and occur together. Although this is a natural thing for us to do, it is not scientific. A scientific approach requires much more
evidence before conclusions can be drawn.
The scientific approach rejects the notion that one
can accept on faith the statements of any authority (Authority heading)
more evidence is needed before we can draw
scientific conclusions.
skepticism
ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations
The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method is
empiricism
empiricism
All of these:
1) the idea that knowledge comes from observations. Data are collected that form the basis of conclusions about the nature of the world. The scientific method embodies a number of rules for collecting and evaluating data
2) Use of objective, verifiable observations to answer questions and draw conclusions.
Goodstein’s evolved theory of science
All of these:
1) Data play a central role
2) Scientists are not alone
3) Science is adversarial
4) Scientific evidence is peer reviewed
Data play a central role
For scientists, knowledge is primarily based on observations. Scientists
enthusiastically search for observations that will verify or reject their ideas about the world. They
develop theories, argue that existing data support their theories, and conduct research that can increase
our confidence that the theories are correct. Observations can be criticized, alternatives can be
suggested, and data collection methods can be called into question. But in each of these cases, the role
of data is central and fundamental. Scientists have a “show me, don’t tell me” attitude.
falsifiability
The principle that a good scientific idea or theory should be capable of being shown to be false when tested using scientific methods.
peer review
The process of judging the scientific merit of research through review by other scientists with the expertise to evaluate the research.
Pseudoscience
The use of seemingly scientific terms and demonstrations to substantiate claims that have no basis in scientific research.
The boundaries separating science, nonscience, and pseudoscience are much fuzzier and more permeable than most scientists would have us believe” Here are a few things to look for when evaluating claims:
All of these:
1) Claims are untestable and therefore cannot be refuted.
2) Claims rely on imprecise, biased, or vague language.
3) Evidence is based on anecdotes and testimonials rather than scientific data.
4) Evidence is from experts with only vague qualifications who provide support for the claim without sound scientific evidence.
5) Only confirmatory evidence is presented; conflicting evidence is ignored.
6) References to scientific evidence lack information on the methods that would allow independent
verification.
General rules to follow when reading Internet sites are
All of these:
1) be highly skeptical of scientific assertions that are supported by only vague or improbable evidence
2) take the time to do an Internet search for supportive evidence. At www.snopes.com and www.truthorfiction.com, you can check many of the
claims that are on the Internet.
Scientific research on behavior has four general goals:
1) to describe behavior
2) to predict behavior
3) to determine the causes of behavior
4) to understand or explain behavior.
The scientist begins with careful observation, because the first goal of science is to describe behavior—which
can be something directly observable (such as running speed, eye gaze, or loudness of laughter) or
something less observable (such as self-reports of perceptions of attractiveness).
A second goal of behavioral science is to predict behavior. Once it has been observed with some regularity that two events are related to one another (e.g., that greater attractiveness is associated with more lenient sentencing), it becomes possible to
make predictions. We can anticipate events. If you read about an upcoming trial of a very attractive defendant, you can predict that the person will likely receive a lenient sentence. Further, the ability to make accurate predictions can help us make better decisions.
A third goal of science is to determine the causes of behavior. Although we might accurately predict the
occurrence of a behavior, we might not correctly identify
its cause. Research shows that a child’s aggressive
behavior can be predicted by knowing how much violence the child views on television. Unfortunately, unless we know that exposure to television violence is a cause of behavior, we cannot assert that aggressive behavior can be reduced by limiting scenes of violence on television. A child who is highly aggressive may prefer to watch violence when choosing television programs.
We are now confronting questions of cause and effect: To know how to change behavior, we need to know the
causes of behavior.
To conclude causation, three things must hold true
- There is a temporal order of events in which the cause precedes the effect. This is called temporal
precedence. Thus, we need to know that television viewing occurred first and aggression followed. - When the cause is present, the effect occurs; when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur.
This is called covariation of cause and effect. We need to know that children who watch television
violence behave aggressively and that children who do not watch television violence do not behave
aggressively. - Nothing other than a causal variable could be responsible for the observed effect. This is called
elimination of alternative explanations. There should be no other plausible alternative explanation for
the relationship. This third point about alternative explanations is very important: Suppose that the
children who watch a lot of television violence are left alone more than are children who do not view
television violence. In this case, the increased aggression could have an alternative explanation: lack of parental supervision. Causation will be discussed again in the chapter “Fundamental Research Issues”.
temporal precedence
Part of causal inference; the cause occurs before the effect.
covariation of cause and effect
Part of causal inference; observing that a change in one variable is accompanied by a change in a second variable. When the cause is present, the effect occurs; when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur.
alternative explanations
Part of causal inference; a potential alternative cause of an observed relationship between variables.
Description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation are all closely intertwined. Determining
cause and explaining behavior are particularly closely related because it is
difficult ever to know the true cause or all the causes of any behavior.
Basic research
tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Studies are often designed
to address theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition, emotion, motivation, learning,
personality, development, and social behavior. Concerned with basic processes of behavior and cognition rather than any immediate practical implications
applied research
is conducted to address issues in which
there are practical problems and potential solutions.
program evaluation
is a major area of applied research. Research designed to assess procedures (e.g., social reforms, innovations) that are designed to produce certain changes or outcomes in a target population.
Much applied research is conducted in settings such as large business firms, marketing research companies, government agencies, and public polling organizations and is not published but instead is used within the company or by clients of the company. Whether or not such results are published, however, they are used to help people make better decisions concerning problems that require
immediate action.
Both basic and applied research are important, and
neither can be considered superior to the other. In fact,
progress in science is dependent on an interconnection between basic and applied research. Much applied research is guided by the theories and findings of basic research investigations.
The fact that no one can predict the eventual impact of basic research leads to the conclusion that
support of basic research is necessary both to
advance science and to benefit society.
What is the impact of being observed by others on a performance task like math problems?
basic
Do violent video games increase aggression among children and young adults?
applied
How do neurons generate neurotransmitters?
basic
Do we process visual images and sound simultaneously?
basic
How can a city increase recycling by residents?
applied
Which strategies are best for coping with climate change?
applied
All researchers use scientific methods, whether they are interested in basic, applied, or
program evaluation questions.
scientists have an intense curiosity about the world and find inspiration for ideas in many places. Second, scientists have strong ethical principles; they are committed to treating those who participate in research investigations with
respect and dignity.
