Chapter 6

Question 1

ALL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH REQUIRES

Answer 1

CAREFUL OBSERVATION

Question 2

Research based on observational methods can be broadly classified as primarily

Answer 2

quantitative or qualitative

Question 3

Qualitative research

Answer 3

focuses on people behaving in natural settings and describing their world in their own words.

Question 4

quantitative research

Answer 4

tends to focus on specific behaviors that can be easily quantified (e.g., counted).

Question 5

Qualitative researchers

Answer 5

generally emphasize collecting in-depth information on a relatively few individuals or within a very limited setting

Question 6

quantitative investigations

Answer 6

generally include larger samples

Question 7

The conclusions of qualitative research

Answer 7

are based on interpretations drawn by the investigator

Question 8

conclusions in quantitative research

Answer 8

are based upon statistical analysis of data

Question 9

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are

Answer 9

valuable and provide us with different ways of understanding behavior

Question 10

Naturalistic observation

Answer 10

is sometimes called field work or simply field observation. It is a descriptive method in which observations are made in a natural social setting.

Question 11

naturalistic observation has roots in

Answer 11

anthropology and the study of animal behavior and is currently widely used in the social sciences to study many phenomena in all types of social and organizational settings.

Question 12

The goal of naturalistic observation is to provide

Answer 12

a complete and accurate picture of what occurred in the setting, rather than to test hypotheses formed prior to the study. To achieve this goal, the researcher must
keep detailed field notes—that is, write or dictate on a regular basis (at least once each day) everything that
has happened. Field researchers rely on a variety of techniques to gather information, depending on the
particular setting.

Question 13

In addition to taking detailed field notes, researchers conducting naturalistic observation usually use

Answer 13

audio or video recordings

Question 14

The naturalistic observation researcher’s first goal is to describe the

Answer 14

the setting, events, and persons observed. The second, equally important goal is to analyze what was observed. The researcher must interpret what occurred, essentially generating hypotheses that help explain the data and make them understandable

Question 15

The final report, although sensitive to the

chronological order of events, is usually organized around the structure developed by

Answer 15

the researcher. Specific examples of events that occurred during observation are used to support the researcher’s interpretations.

Question 16

A good naturalistic observation report will support the analysis by using

Answer 16

multiple confirmations. For example, similar events may occur several times, similar information may be reported by two or more people, and several different events may occur that all support the same conclusion.

Question 17

The data in naturalistic observation studies are primarily

Answer 17

qualitative in nature; that is, they are the
descriptions of the observations themselves rather than quantitative statistical summaries. Such qualitative
descriptions are often richer and closer to the phenomenon being studied than are statistical representations. However, it is often useful to also gather quantitative data. Depending on the setting, data might be gathered on income, family size, education levels, age, or sex of individuals in the setting. Such data can be reported and interpreted along with qualitative data gathered from interviews and direct observations.

Question 18

Two related issues facing the researcher are whether to be a

Answer 18

participant or nonparticipant in the social setting

and whether to conceal his or her purposes from the other people in the setting.

Question 19

participant observation

Answer 19

A technique of observing a situation wherein the observer takes an active, insider role in the situation.

Question 20

A potential problem with participant observation

Answer 20

is that the observer may lose the objectivity necessary to conduct scientific observation. Remaining objective may be especially difficult when the researcher already
belongs to the group being studied or is a dissatisfied former member of the group. Remember that
naturalistic observation requires accurate description and objective interpretation with no prior hypotheses. If a researcher has some prior reason to either criticize people in the setting or give a glowing report of a
particular group, the observations will likely be biased and the conclusions will lack objectivity.

Question 21

Should the researcher remain concealed or be open about the research purposes?

Answer 21

Concealed observation may be preferable because the presence of the observer may influence and alter the behavior of those being observed. Imagine how a nonconcealed observer might alter the behavior of high school students in many situations at a school. Thus, concealed observation is less reactive than nonconcealed observation because people are not aware that their behaviors are being observed and recorded. Still, nonconcealed observation may be preferable from an ethical viewpoint: Consider the invasion of privacy when researchers hid under
beds in dormitory rooms to discover what college students talk about. Also, people often quickly become used to the observer and behave naturally in the observer’s presence. The decision of whether to conceal one’s purpose or presence depends on both ethical concerns and the nature of the particular group and setting being studied.

Question 22

observation in public places when anonymity is not threatened is considered

Answer 22

exempt research. In these cases, informed consent may not be necessary. Moreover, in nonconcealed observation, informed consent may be given verbally or in written form. Nevertheless, researchers must be sensitive to ethical issues when conducting naturalistic observation. Of particular interest is whether the observations are made in a public place with no clear expectations that behaviors are private.

Question 23

Naturalistic observation obviously cannot be used to study

Answer 23

all issues or phenomena. The approach is most
useful when investigating complex social settings both to understand the settings and to develop theories
based on the observations. It is less useful for studying well-defined hypotheses under precisely specified
conditions or phenomena that are not directly observable by a researcher in a natural setting

Question 24

Field research is also very difficult to do. Unlike a typical laboratory experiment, field research data
collection cannot always be scheduled at a convenient time and place. In fact, field research can be extremely

Answer 24

time-consuming, often placing the researcher in an unfamiliar setting for extended periods. In the Graham et al. (2006) investigation of aggression in bars, observers spent over 1,300 nights in 118 different bars (74 male– female pairs of observers were required to accomplish this feat).

Question 25

in more carefully controlled settings such as laboratory research, the procedures are well defined and
the same for each participant, and the data analysis is planned in advance. In naturalistic observation research, however, there is an

Answer 25

ever-changing pattern of events, some important and some unimportant; the researcher must record them all and remain flexible in order to adjust to them as research progresses. Finally, the process of analysis that follows the completion of the research is not simple (imagine the task of sorting through the field notes of every incident of aggression that occurred on over 1,300 nights). The researcher must repeatedly
sort through the data to develop hypotheses to explain the data and then make sure all data are consistent with the hypotheses.

Question 26

Although naturalistic observation research is a difficult and challenging scientific procedure, it yields

Answer 26

invaluable knowledge when done well.

Question 27

Systematic observation

Answer 27

Observations of one or more specific variables, usually made in a precisely defined setting. This research approach is much less global than naturalistic observation research. The researcher is interested in only a few very specific behaviors, the observations are quantifiable, and the researcher frequently has developed prior hypotheses about the behaviors. We will focus on systematic observation in naturalistic settings; these techniques may also be applied in laboratory settings.

Question 28

coding system

Answer 28

A set of rules used to categorize observations

Question 29

several methodological issues in systematic observation.

Answer 29

The first concerns equipment. You can directly observe behavior and code it at the same
time; for example, you could use paper-and-pencil measures to directly observe and record the behavior of children in a classroom or couples interacting on campus. However, it is becoming more common to use video and audio recording equipment to make such observations because they provide a permanent record of the behavior observed that can be coded later.

Question 30

An interesting method for audio recording is called the Electronically Activated Recorder

Answer 30

which was used to compare sociability behaviors of Americans and Mexicans. The EAR is a small audio recorder that a subject wears throughout the day.
It is set to turn on periodically to record sounds in the subject’s environment. The study examined frequency
of sociable behaviors. Previous research had found the Americans score higher than Mexicans on self-report measures of sociability, contradicting stereotypes that Mexicans are generally more sociable. Coders applied the Social Environment of Sound Inventory to code the sounds as alone, talking with others in a public environment, or on the phone. When sociability was measured this way, the Mexican subjects were in fact more sociable than the Americans.

Question 31

several methodological issues in systematic observation 2

Answer 31

A second issue is reactivity—the possibility that the presence of the observer will affect people’s behaviors. Reactivity can be reduced by concealed observation. Using small cameras and microphones can make the observation unobtrusive, even in situations in which the participant has been informed of the recording. Also, reactivity can be reduced by allowing time for people to become accustomed to the observer and equipment.

Question 32

reactivity

Answer 32

A problem of measurement in which the measure changes the behavior being observed.

Question 33

several methodological issues in systematic observation 3

Answer 33

When conducting systematic observation, two or more raters are usually used to code behavior. Reliability is indicated by a high agreement among the raters. Very high levels of agreement (generally 80% agreement or higher) are reported in virtually all published research using systematic observation. For some large-scale research programs in which many observers will be employed over a period of years, observers are first trained using videotapes, and their observations during training are checked for agreement with results from previous observers.

Question 34

several methodological issues in systematic observation 4

Answer 34

For many research questions, samples of behavior taken over an extended period provide more accurate and useful data than single, short observations.

Question 35

case study

Answer 35

A descriptive account of the behavior, past history, and other relevant factors concerning a specific individual. This individual is usually a person, but it may also be a setting such as a business, school, or neighborhood. Case studies are valuable in informing us of conditions that are rare or unusual and thus providing unique
data about some psychological phenomenon, such as memory, language, or social exchange. Insights gained
through a case study may also lead to the development of hypotheses that can be tested using other methods.

Question 36

A naturalistic observation study is sometimes called a case study, and in fact the naturalistic observation and case study approaches sometimes overlap. But

Answer 36

case studies do not necessarily involve naturalistic observation. Instead, the case study may be a description of a patient by a clinical psychologist or a historical account of an event such as a model school that failed

Question 37

psychobiography

Answer 37

A type of case study in which the life of an individual is analyzed using psychological theory.

Question 38

case studies may use such techniques as library research and telephone interviews with persons familiar with the case but

Answer 38

no direct observation at all

Question 39

our ability to engage in social exchange relationships is grounded in

Answer 39

the development of a biological mechanism that differs from general cognitive abilities.

Question 40

Archival research

Answer 40

The use of existing sources of information for research. Sources include statistical records, survey archives, and written records.

Question 41

In an archival research project, the researcher does not actually collect the original data. Instead, he or she

Answer 41

analyzes existing data such as statistics that are part of publicly accessible records (e.g., the number of texting-related traffic accidents; the number of children born in a given state or county), reports of anthropologists, the content of letters to the editor, or information contained in databases (e.g., tweets, Facebook or Instagram posts, or census data), or original data made available from prior research studies (see the “Open Science” box).

Question 42

three types of archival research data

Answer 42

statistical records, survey archives, and written records.

Question 43

Statistical records are collected by many

Answer 43

public and private organizations. The U.S. Census Bureau maintains the most extensive set of statistical records available, but state and local agencies also maintain such records.

Question 44

There are also numerous less-obvious sources of statistical records, including

Answer 44

public health statistics, test score records kept by testing organizations such as the Educational Testing Service, and even sports organizations. Major League Baseball is known for the extensive records that are kept on virtually every aspect of every game and every player.

Question 45

Survey archives

Answer 45

consist of data from surveys that are stored digitally and available to researchers who wish to analyze them. Major polling organizations make many of their surveys available. Also, many universities are part of the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research which makes survey archive data available. One very useful data set is the General Social Survey, a series of surveys funded by the National Science Foundation.

Question 46

Survey archives are extremely important because

Answer 46

most researchers do not have the financial resources
to conduct surveys of randomly selected national samples; the archives allow them to access such samples to test their ideas.

Question 47

Written records are documents such as

Answer 47

diaries and letters that have been preserved by historical societies, ethnographies of other cultures written by anthropologists, and public documents as diverse as speeches by politicians or discussion board messages left by Internet users.

Question 48

Mass communication records include

Answer 48

books, tweets, Instragram or Facebook posts, magazine articles, movies, television programs, newspapers, and blog posts.

Question 49

content analysis

Answer 49

Systematic analysis of records.

Question 50

Like systematic observation, content

analysis requires researchers to devise

Answer 50

coding systems that raters can use to quantify the information in the documents. Sometimes the coding is quite simple and straightforward. More often the
researcher must define categories in order to code the information.

Question 51

There are at least two major problems with the use of archival data

Answer 51

First, the desired records may be difficult to obtain: they might have been placed in long-forgotten storage places, or they may have been destroyed. Second, we can never be completely sure of the accuracy of information collected by someone else.

Question 52

Researchers conducted an in-depth study with certain 9/11 victims to understand the psychological impact of the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001.

Answer 52

case study

Question 53

Researchers recorded the time it took drivers in parking lots to back out of a parking stall. They also
measured the age and gender of the drivers, and
whether another car was waiting for the space.

Answer 53

systematic observation

Question 54

Contents of Craigslist personal ads in three major cities
were coded to examine individual differences in
self-descriptions.

Answer 54

archival research

Question 55

The researcher spent over a year meeting with and
interviewing Aileen Wuornos, the infamous female serial killer who was the subject of the film Monster, to
construct a psychobiography.

Answer 55

case study

Question 56

Researchers examined unemployment rates and the

incidence of domestic violence police calls in six cities.

Answer 56

archival research

Question 57

A group of researchers studied recycling behavior at three local parks over a 6-month period. They concealed their presence and kept detailed field notes.

Answer 57

naturalistic observation