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AP Biology Flashcards (From Books) > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

A set of stages taht take plce between teh time a eukaryotic cell divides and the time that the resulting daughter cells are going to divide

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2
Q

What are some steps a cell has to take if it plans to divide?

A

It has to grow larger, double the number and organelles, double DNA (DNA replication occurs)

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3
Q

What are the phases in the cell cycle?

A

Interphase, G1, S, G2, M Stage

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4
Q

What happens in Interphase?

A

Cell performs it’s usual functions (depending on where it is, in the body)

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5
Q

For adult mammalian cells, how long could interphase last?

A

20 hours

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6
Q

What three stages are part of interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

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7
Q

What happens during the G1 stage?

A

During this stage, the cell recovers from the previous division. The cell increases in size, doubles its organelles,and accumulates materials that are used for DNA synthesis.

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8
Q

Other than preparing for DNA replication, what do cells do during the G1 cycles?

A

They carry out their normal duties (such as communicating with other cells, secreting substances,and respiration)

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9
Q

What phase are nerve and muscle cells ALWAYS in? (Hint: They don’t replicate)

A

G0

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10
Q

After the G1 stage, what stage do cells enter?

A

They enter the S stage

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11
Q

What occurs during the S Stage?

A

DNA syntehsis & replication occurs

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12
Q

What happens during DNA Replication ( during the S stage)

A

At the beginning, each chromosome is composed of ONE DNA double helix. After DNA replication, each chromosome is composed of two identical DNA double helix molecules

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13
Q

What is each double helix called?

A

A chromatid

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14
Q

Will the two chromatids be attached after S phase?

A

They will remain attached until mitosis

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15
Q

After the S stage, what is the next stage?

A

G2 stage

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16
Q

What occurs during the G2 stage?

A

The cell syntehsizes proteins that will assist cell division

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17
Q

Some of the proteins that are made during the G2 stage, assist during the formation of ______.

A

microtubulues

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18
Q

After interphase, what does the cell enter?

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis

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19
Q

What does mitosis mean?

A

nuclear division

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20
Q

What does cytokinesis mean?

A

It means division of cytoplasm

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21
Q

During mitosis, what happens?

A

Daughter chromosomes are distributed by the mitotic spindle to two daughter nuclei

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22
Q

Does the cell cycle have to be controlled?

A

Yes

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23
Q

What is a signal?

A

It is an agent that influences the activities of a cell

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24
Q

What are growth signals?

A

They are signaling proteins recieved at the plasma membrane

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25
Q

Will the cells that stay in G0 stage finish the cell cycles, if stimulated by the growth factors?

A

Yes

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26
Q

How does the cell make sure that the process of mitosis doesn’t get out of control?

A

There are three checkpoints. At these checkpoints, the cell cycle either stops or continues on, depending on the internal signal it recieves

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27
Q

What are the family of the internal signal proteins called?

A

Cyclins

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28
Q

Does the amount of cyclins stay the same throughout the cell cycle?

A

No, they increase/decreases as the cell cycle continues. Specific cyclins must be present for the cell to proceed from G1 to S, and G2 to M.

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29
Q

What is the primary checkpoint of the cell cycle?

A

The G1 checkpoint

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30
Q

What protien stops the cycle at the G1 checkpoint when DNA damange has occured?

A

p53

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31
Q
A
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32
Q

What does p53 do when the DNA is damaged?

A

It attempts to fix it

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33
Q

If there are elevated levels of p53 in the cell, what is about to occur

A

apoptosis

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34
Q

What is the protein RB do?

A

It is responsible for interpreting growth signals and nutrient availability signals

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35
Q
A
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36
Q

When the RB gene undergoes mutation, what hapens?

A

Retinoblastoma occurs. It is a cancer that occurs in the retina

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37
Q

If the DNA has not finished replicating, then where will the cell cycle stop, and why?

A

At G2 checkpoint. This prevents the entry into the mitosis part. If the DNA is damaged

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38
Q

Finally, where does the last cell cycle check point occr?

A

It occurs during the mitotic stage, The cycle stops if the chromosomes are not properly attached to the mitotic spindle

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39
Q

What does the mitotic spindle do?

A

It ensures that the chromosomes are distributed accurately to the daughter cells

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40
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

It is programmed cell death

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41
Q

How does apoptosis occur?

A

It occurs when the cell rounds up, causing it to lose contant with its neighbors. The nucleus fragments and the plasma membrane develops blisters. The cell fragments are engulfed by white blood cells

42
Q

What are the enzymes that bring about apoptosis?

A

Caspases

43
Q

What protein is usually associated with DNA?

A

histones

44
Q

When a eukaryotic cell is not undergoing division where is the DNA (and associated proteins) located?

A

Within chromatin

45
Q

What does chromatin usually look like?

A

It has the appearance of a tangled mass of thin threads

46
Q

Where is the DIPLOID number of chromosomes found?

A

It is found in all cells of the individual

47
Q

What does the diploid number represent?

A

It represents two chromosomes of each kind

48
Q

What is half of the diploid number called?

A

Haploid

49
Q

Where are haploid chromosomes found?

A

In sex cells (egg/sperm)

50
Q

During interphase, what does the cell do to prepare for mitosis?

A

Replicating the chromosomes, duplicating most celllar organelles

51
Q

What is the function of the centrosome?

A

Organizes spindle apparatus, which is necessary for the movement of chromosomes

52
Q

During mitosis, what divides, and what is produced?

A

a 2n (diploid) cell divides, and a 2n (diploid) cell is produced

53
Q

What is the dividing cell called, and what is the resulting cell called?

A

The dividing cell is called the parent cell, and the resulting cell is called the daughter cell(s)

54
Q

What is each double helix called? The identical double helixes?

A

A chromatid, Sister chromatid

55
Q

The region where sister chromatids are attached is called?

A

Centromere

56
Q

What protein complex develops on either side of the centromere during cell division?

A

Kinetechores

57
Q

What is the centrosome?

A

It is the main microtubule organizing center of the cell

58
Q

In an animal cell, what does each centrosome contain?

A

It contains a pair of barrel shaped organelles called centrioles an asters

59
Q

The centrosomes organize the mitotic spindle, which contains many fibers, each composd of:

A

Microtubules

60
Q

What are microtubules

A

They are hollow cylinders made up of the protein tubulin

61
Q

When do the microtubules assemble?

A

When tubulin subunits join (when they disassemble, the tubulin subunits are free)

62
Q

When do microtubules begin to disassemble?

A

When spindle fibers begin forming

63
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

Chromatin condensed and chromasomes are visible. The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope fragments. The spindle begins to assemble as the two centrosomes migrate away from one another.

64
Q

During prophase, has DNA replicated? Elaborate>

A

The parental chromosomes are already duplicated and composed of two sister chromaids held together at a centromere

65
Q

What are asters? Are they found in plants or animals?

A

An array of microtubules that radiate toward the plasma membrane from the centrosome, found in plant cells

66
Q

What happens in prometaphase?

A

Preparations for sister chromatid separation are evident, kinetochores appear on each side of the centromere, these attach sister chromatids to the kinetochore spindle fiber

67
Q

Where do the kinetochore spindle fibers extend from? Where will they soon be located?

A

They extend from the poles to the chromosomes. They will soon be located at the center of the spindle

68
Q

Where do the kinetochore fibers attach the sister chromatids? How are they pulled?

A

To opposite poles of the spindle, and the chromosomes are pulled back and forth until they are aligned (which happens in metaphse)

69
Q

During metaphase, what happens?

A

The centromeres of chromosomes are aligned on a single plane at the center of the cell

70
Q

What does the metaphase plate indicate?

A

It indicates the axis of cell division

71
Q

What are polar spindle fibers, and waht do they do?

A

They are non attached spindle fibers, that reach beyond the metaphase plate and overlap

72
Q

There’s a cell cycle checkpoint after Metaphase..what does it do?

A

Delays the start of anaphase until the kinetochores of each chromosome are properly attached to the spindle fibers and chromosomes are properly aligned along the metaphase plate

73
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

The two sister chromatids seperate at the centromere, leading to two daughter chromosomes, daughter chromosomes move toward opposite poles

74
Q

In anaphase, what are the daughter chromosomes beign pulled apart by?

A

They are being pulled apart to the opposite poles as kinetochore spindle fibers disasemble at the regions of the kinetochores

75
Q

During anaphase, as the daughter chromosomes are moving toward the spindle poles,w hat is happenign to the poles?

A

They are moving arther apart because the polar spindle fibers are sliding past one another

76
Q

What proteins are involved during anaphase?

A

Kinesin and Dynein

77
Q

What happens during telophase?

A

the spindle disppears and a new nuclear envelop forms around the daughter chromosomes.

78
Q

When mitosis occurs, but cytokineses doesn’t, what is the result? Give an example.

A

Nultinucleated cell, such as the embryo sac in a flowering plant

79
Q

When does division of the cytoplasm begin?

A

In anaphase, continues in telophase, but doesn’t reach completionunitl cytokinesis

80
Q

What is cancer?

A

It is is a condition that results from uncontrolled cell growth

81
Q

What two types of tumors are there?

A

Benign/Malignant

82
Q

What are five characterisitcs of cancer?

A
  1. Cancer cells lack differentiation
  2. Cancer cells have abnormal nuclei
  3. Cancer cells do not undergo apoptosis
  4. Cancer cells form tumors
  5. Cancer cells undergo metastisis and angiogenesis
83
Q

Describe this characterisitc: Lack of differentiation

A

They are not specialized and do not contribute to the functioning of the tissue. They are distinctingly abnormal. Cancer cells repeatedly enter the cell cycle

84
Q

Describe this characteristic: Cancer cells have abnormal nuclei

A

The nuclei of cancer cells are enlarged and may contain an abnormal number of chromosomes.

85
Q

Describe this characteristic: Cancer cells do not undergo apoptosis

A

These cells don’t undergo apoptosis even though the DNA is damaged.

86
Q

Describe this characteristic: Cancer cells form tumors

A

Normal cells anchor themselves to a substratum/exhibit contact inhibition. They stop dividing when they come in contact with a neighbor. Cancer cells DO NOT exhibit contact inhibition, so the abnormal cancer cells pile on top of eachother (to form a tumor)

87
Q

Describe this symptom: Cancer cells undergo metastasis and angiogenesis

A

Start tumors elsewhere in the body-metastisis

Angeiogenesis: Additional mutations that occur in the cell allow them to direct the growth of new blood vessels into the tumor

88
Q

Mutations in what two genes could lead to cancer?

A
  • Proto-oncogenes
  • Tumor Suppressor genes
89
Q

What are proto-oncogenes?

A

They code for proteins that promote the cell cycle and prevent apoptosis. They cause the cell cycle to speed up or go!

90
Q

What are tumor suppressor genes?

A

They code for proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and promote apoptosis. They can cause the cell cycle to go more slowly or stop

91
Q

Where are proto-oncogenes normally found?

A

At the end of a stimulatory pathway, extending from the plasma membrane to the nucleus

92
Q

When mutations occur in proto-oncogenes, what are they called?

A

Oncogenes

93
Q

What do oncognees do, with the cell cycle?

A

They keep rpomoting it

94
Q

What are two good examples of tumor suppressor genes?

A

RB and p53

95
Q

What is one other thing that can cause cancer?

A

Mutation of the enzyme that regulates the length of the telomeres (ends of chromosomes). Because shorter telomeres automatically stop dividing and these stay at the same length, it keeps dividign

96
Q

What is cell divison in prokaryotes like?

A

It is asexual reprouction

97
Q

What is asexual reproductions?

A

It is the reproduction in which the offspring are genetically identical to the parent

98
Q

What is the bacterial chromosome liek?

A

It is an electron dense, irregularly shaped region called the nucleoid, which is not enclosed by the membrane. When streched, it appears as a circular chromosome lop

99
Q

How do prokaryotes reproduce?

A

They reproduce via a process called binary fission

100
Q

What does binary fission produce?

A

Two cells that are identical

101
Q

Before replication occurs, what happens in prokaryotes?

A

The cell enlarges, DNA replication occurs, two chromosomes

102
Q
A

AP Biology Flashcards (From Books) (9 decks)

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