Chapter 9 Flashcards
hierarchy of language
sentence - word - morpheme - phoneme
sentence
coherent sequence of words that express meaning
word
the smallest free from in a language
morpheme
the smallest unit of sound that can carry meaning
phoneme
the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish words in a language
syntax
a system of rules for arranging words to convey a specific meaning
pragmatics
the practical aspects of language use, such as pace, gesturing, tone and body language
prelinguistic period
- the period prior to the production of the first word
- infant show early sensitivity to speech
- initial vocalization similar across languages
overextension
an error in children when specifics are used to describe broader set (i.e car for all motor vehicles)
underextension
an error in children when general words used to described specific instances (candy only for mints)
language development in first years
→ In the first year, simple single-word talking
- language comprehension exceeding language production ability
→ word learning slow at first but is followed by rapid acquisition of new words due to fast-mapping (can link word and meaning after 1-2 exposures)
when does telegraphic speech develop
- by 2 years of age
- simple two word sentences that contain only the crucial content, like a telegram
when does pragmatics develop?
- by 3 years of age
- basic understanding of practical information regarding language
when does grammar develop?
- by 4 years of age
- basic rules of grammar are understood without formal education
behaviourist view of language development
- adults shape child’s speech through reinforcement (skinner)
- children learn by initiating adults (bandura)
- use of child-directed speech
what is the nativist view on language development?
- certain universal features common to all languages that are innate
- humans biologically programmed to acquire language (Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device)
what does the nativist view not account for in langauge development?
- ignores contribution of environment
- language learning is a gradual process
- difficult to account for the wide variety of languages
what does the behaviourist view not account for in langauge development?
- Early errors creative, not imitative
- Difficult to reinforce all speech
- grammar isn’t shaped
what is the interactionist view on language development?
- says both nature and nurture are important for language acquisition
- children are biologically prepared to learn language but require extensive experience
- may be a sensitive period for language learning
what two brain regions are associated with language?
1.) Broca’s Area = critical for speech production
2.) Wernicke’s area = critical for language comprehension
what are the gender differences in language?
- language production and comprehension tend to occur at an earlier age in girls than buoys
- no differences in reading and writing by young adulthood
- women are more likely to use both hemispheres to process language information
linguistic relativity
is the hypothesis that people who speak different languages think differently
problem solving
a process in which one begins with a goal and takes steps that will lead to that goal
ill defined problem vs well defined problem
ill-defined problems = do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solution
well-defined problems = have specific goals, clearly defined solution paths, and clear expected solutions
problems inducing structure
→ requires you to discover relationship among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas
problems of arrangement
→ requires you to arrange the parts of a problem to satisfy some criterion
problems of transformation
→ requires you to carry out a series of transformations in order to reach a specific goal
strategies for problem solving
- Algorithms = systematic trial and error, guaranteed solution
- Heuristics = shortcuts, no guaranteed solution but effectively narrow the range of possibilities down
types of heuristics
- forming subgoals
- hill climbing strategies
- working backwards
- searching for analogies
- using mental imagery
heuristics: forming subgoals
Break the problem into a bunch of intermediate steps and then solve each step
heuristics: hill climbing strategy
- only searches for steps that move the current state closer to the direction of the goal
- many problems usually require you to move away from the goal
heuristics: working backwards
when the solution has a well-specified endpoint, it may be easier to solve the problem by starting at the end and moving backwards
heuristics: analogies
we can make a previous analogy with another problem we’ve previously done
heuristics: mental imagery
Visualizing the problem to becomes clearer to you
barriers to problem solving
- irrelevant information
- functional fixedness
- mental set
- unnecessary contraints
irrelevant information
incorrectly assuming that all information given in a problem is relevant to solving it
functional fixedness
The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its common use
mental set
When people get locked into a particular line of thinking when trying to solve a problem
unnecessary constraints
When people impose their own constraints on the problem when in reality, those constraints don’t exist
decision making
→ is the process of evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
availability heuristic
basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
representative heuristic
basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical case of that event
tendency to ignore base rates
ignoring information about the broad likelihood of a particular category or type of event
conjuction fallacy
occurs when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together as greater than the odds of either event happening alone
confirmation bias
tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms one’s beliefs than evidence that challenges it
framing effect
the fact that decisions are based on how the issues are presented or how choices are structures
