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PS102 > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

1
Q

hierarchy of language

A

sentence - word - morpheme - phoneme

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2
Q

sentence

A

coherent sequence of words that express meaning

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3
Q

word

A

the smallest free from in a language

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4
Q

morpheme

A

the smallest unit of sound that can carry meaning

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5
Q

phoneme

A

the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish words in a language

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6
Q

syntax

A

a system of rules for arranging words to convey a specific meaning

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7
Q

pragmatics

A

the practical aspects of language use, such as pace, gesturing, tone and body language

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8
Q

prelinguistic period

A
  • the period prior to the production of the first word
  • infant show early sensitivity to speech
  • initial vocalization similar across languages
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9
Q

overextension

A

an error in children when specifics are used to describe broader set (i.e car for all motor vehicles)

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10
Q

underextension

A

an error in children when general words used to described specific instances (candy only for mints)

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11
Q

language development in first years

A

→ In the first year, simple single-word talking
- language comprehension exceeding language production ability
→ word learning slow at first but is followed by rapid acquisition of new words due to fast-mapping (can link word and meaning after 1-2 exposures)

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12
Q

when does telegraphic speech develop

A
  • by 2 years of age
  • simple two word sentences that contain only the crucial content, like a telegram
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13
Q

when does pragmatics develop?

A
  • by 3 years of age
  • basic understanding of practical information regarding language
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14
Q

when does grammar develop?

A
  • by 4 years of age
  • basic rules of grammar are understood without formal education
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15
Q

behaviourist view of language development

A
  • adults shape child’s speech through reinforcement (skinner)
  • children learn by initiating adults (bandura)
  • use of child-directed speech
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16
Q

what is the nativist view on language development?

A
  • certain universal features common to all languages that are innate
  • humans biologically programmed to acquire language (Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device)
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17
Q

what does the nativist view not account for in langauge development?

A
  • ignores contribution of environment
  • language learning is a gradual process
  • difficult to account for the wide variety of languages
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18
Q

what does the behaviourist view not account for in langauge development?

A
  • Early errors creative, not imitative
  • Difficult to reinforce all speech
  • grammar isn’t shaped
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19
Q

what is the interactionist view on language development?

A
  • says both nature and nurture are important for language acquisition
  • children are biologically prepared to learn language but require extensive experience
  • may be a sensitive period for language learning
20
Q

what two brain regions are associated with language?

A

1.) Broca’s Area = critical for speech production
2.) Wernicke’s area = critical for language comprehension

21
Q

what are the gender differences in language?

A
  • language production and comprehension tend to occur at an earlier age in girls than buoys
  • no differences in reading and writing by young adulthood
  • women are more likely to use both hemispheres to process language information
22
Q

linguistic relativity

A

is the hypothesis that people who speak different languages think differently

23
Q

problem solving

A

a process in which one begins with a goal and takes steps that will lead to that goal

24
Q

ill defined problem vs well defined problem

A

ill-defined problems = do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solution
well-defined problems = have specific goals, clearly defined solution paths, and clear expected solutions

25
Q

problems inducing structure

A

→ requires you to discover relationship among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas

26
Q

problems of arrangement

A

→ requires you to arrange the parts of a problem to satisfy some criterion

27
Q

problems of transformation

A

→ requires you to carry out a series of transformations in order to reach a specific goal

28
Q

strategies for problem solving

A
  • Algorithms = systematic trial and error, guaranteed solution
  • Heuristics = shortcuts, no guaranteed solution but effectively narrow the range of possibilities down
29
Q

types of heuristics

A
  • forming subgoals
  • hill climbing strategies
  • working backwards
  • searching for analogies
  • using mental imagery
30
Q

heuristics: forming subgoals

A

Break the problem into a bunch of intermediate steps and then solve each step

31
Q

heuristics: hill climbing strategy

A
  • only searches for steps that move the current state closer to the direction of the goal
  • many problems usually require you to move away from the goal
32
Q

heuristics: working backwards

A

when the solution has a well-specified endpoint, it may be easier to solve the problem by starting at the end and moving backwards

33
Q

heuristics: analogies

A

we can make a previous analogy with another problem we’ve previously done

34
Q

heuristics: mental imagery

A

Visualizing the problem to becomes clearer to you

35
Q

barriers to problem solving

A
  • irrelevant information
  • functional fixedness
  • mental set
  • unnecessary contraints
36
Q

irrelevant information

A

incorrectly assuming that all information given in a problem is relevant to solving it

37
Q

functional fixedness

A

The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its common use

38
Q

mental set

A

When people get locked into a particular line of thinking when trying to solve a problem

39
Q

unnecessary constraints

A

When people impose their own constraints on the problem when in reality, those constraints don’t exist

40
Q

decision making

A

→ is the process of evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

41
Q

availability heuristic

A

basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

42
Q

representative heuristic

A

basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical case of that event

43
Q

tendency to ignore base rates

A

ignoring information about the broad likelihood of a particular category or type of event

44
Q

conjuction fallacy

A

occurs when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together as greater than the odds of either event happening alone

45
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms one’s beliefs than evidence that challenges it

46
Q

framing effect

A

the fact that decisions are based on how the issues are presented or how choices are structures

PS102 (9 decks)

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