Chapter 11 Flashcards
motivation
process that influences, guides, and maintains goal-directed behaviors
biological motives
hunger, thirst, sex, temperature, sleep
social motives
achievement, autonomy, nurturance etc
5 major theories of motivation
1.) instinct theory
2.) drive reduction theory
3.) arousal theory
4.) incentive theory
5.) hierarchy of needs
instinct theory
- behaviour is motivated by inborn instincts and are activated by environmental stimuli
- people are motivated to engage in behaviours that promote survival
drive reduction theory
- motivated by need to maintain the body in a state of balance or equilibrium
- physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives to behave in a certain way
arousal theory
- says that we are motivated to pursue an optimum level of stimulation/arousal
- some motivated behaviours increase arousal, others decrease arousal
what does the yerkes-dodson law say?
- says that performance on a task is best when the arousal level is optimal for that specific task
- Complex = low, Simple = high
incentive theory
suggests people are motivated by a drive for incentives and reinforcement
primary incentive
rewards or punishments that are natural
secondary incentive
stimuli that are viewed as rewarding as a result of learning about their association with other events
extrinsic motivation
performing an activity to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment
intrinsic motivation
performing an activity for own sake and satisfaction
maslows heirachy of needs
says we are motivated to fill needs from the bottom of the hierarchy before we fill needs higher on the hierarchy
→ physiological –> safety –> belonging and love –> self esteem –> self actualization
set point theory
- the human body tries to maintain its weight/fat mass within a preferred range
- homeostatic mechanisms alter energy utilization and hunger to return us close to original weigh
signals to start a meal
- liver converts stored nutrients into glucose
- blood glucose levels are low
- produce drop-rise pattern in glucose = changes in supply of glucose provide signals that help brain regulate hunger
- lateral hypothalamus is active
signals to end a meal
- stomach and intestinal distention (swollen)
- high blood glucose levels
- cholecystokinin (CCK) and other peptides released by small intestine into bloodstream, travel to brain
- ventromedial hypothalamus is active
what does leptin do?
- a hormone secreted by fat cells
- signals to brain to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure
Hungry = low levels
Full = high levels
lateral hypothalamus (LH) role during eating
- may be involve in stimulating eating (not “hunger on” center)
role of ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) during eating
- may influence stopping eating (not a ‘hunger off’ center)
role of paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
- various neurotransmitters
what are the psychological aspects of hunger?
- eating is positively reinforced by good tastes and negatively reinforced by hunger reduction
– expectations that eating will be pleasurable and will reduce hunger stimulate eating
– beliefs, memories, and attitudes about food can also affect eating - pressure for thinness
environmental factors affecting eating
- food variety
– smell and sight of food (classically conditioned)
– presence of others
– familiarity of food (tastes can be culturally specific)
– stress
environmental influences on obesity
- inexpensive, tasty foods high in fat and/or carbohydrates
- supersizing due to cultural value of getting best value
- decreased daily activity due to technological advances
genetic influence on obesity
- influence basal metabolism
- influence tendency to store energy as fat or lean tissue
anorexia nervosa
when individuals under-eat and have a distorted body image of being overweight
→ 1 in 300 young women in Canada
bulimia nervosa
when individuals binge and then engage in purging-type behaviour
→ 1 in 100 young women in Canada
sexual motivations
- desire to reproduce
- obtain and give sensual pleasure
- express love and intimacy
- fulfill ‘duty’
- conform to peer pressure
four stages of sex
1.) Excitement = vasocongestion – blood flow increases to genitals
2.) Plateau = ncrease in vasocongestion, heart rate, respiration, muscle tension
3.) orgasm = rhythmic contractions
4.) resolution = genital organs return to normal, males enter refractory period, females may orgasm more
role of hypothalamus during sexual intercourse
hypothalamus controls pituitary gland = regulates secretions of gonadotropins = affect secretion of androgens and estrogens
what is functioning during the excitement phase?
- hypothalamus
- amygdala
- prefrontal cortex
- striatum
- ventral tegmental area
what is functioning duirng orgasm phase?
cerebellum and ventral tegmental area
what are the organizational effects of hormones?
- development of male/female sex characteristics
- embryonic development
- at about 8 weeks, development of testes = male; if not, female (the default gender)
what are the activational effects of hormones?
- sexual desire and behaviour (influence by androgens)
- begin at puberty
different of sexual behaviour between men and women
- men reach orgasm more consistently than women
- men have an increased desire for a variety of sexual partners
- women have an increased desire for males with financial prospects
parental investment theory
suggests that differences in mate preferences are due
to gender differences in parental investment
fantasy
Is a connection between mental processes and physiological functioning
desire
- sexual stimulus perceived positively
- negative influences: stress, fatigue, anger, performance anxiet
effects of culture on sex
→ Culture shapes the expression of sexuality
→ Psychological meaning of sex depends on cultural contexts
→ Cultural norms affect sexual practices and techniques
environmental stimuli for sexual arousal
- touch, watching partner undress, erotic stories
- pornography, sexual violence, attitudes
effects of pornography: social learning theory predictions
- learn through observation
- coercion and domination are acceptable
- viewers should become sexually aggressive
effects of pornography: catharsis learning theory predictions
- freudian concepts inborn aggression
- viewing pornography provides ‘safe’ outlet
- research does not support either theory
sexual orientation
→ A person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with a partner of the same or opposite sex
→ On a continuum = Heterosexual – bisexual – homosexual
why are people motivated to succeed?
- motive for success
- fear of failure
- situational factors
- family influences
- cultural influences
mastery goals
- intrinsic motivation
- desire to master tasks and learn knowledge and skills
performance-approach goals
desire to be judged favorably compared to others
performance-avoidance goals
- desire to avoid negative judgments
- fear of failure and performance avoidance goals impairs performance
traits of high need achievers
- ambitious
- persist longer at difficult task
- perform best when conditions are challenging
what perceptions cause us to strive hard for success?
- responsible for outcome
- risk of not succeeding
- potential feedback
family influences on achievement and motivation
1.) causes high need for achievement
→encourage and reward achievement = don’t punish failure
2.) causes fear of failure
→achievement taken for granted = failure is punished
why do people work?
- money
- personal accomplishment
- mastery and growth
- satisfying interpersonal relationships
emotions
positive and negative feelings that involve a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural reactions to events
what is the link between motivation and emotion?
- react emotionally when goals and motives are gratified, threatened, or frustrated
- strong reaction to important goals
features common to all emotions
1.) cognitive component → Subjective conscious experience
2.) physiological component → Bodily (autonomic) arousal
3.) Behavioural component → Characteristic overt expressions
adaptive value of negative emotions
narrow attention, increased psychological activation
adaptive value of positive emotions
broaden thinking, causes exploration and skill learning
cognitive component of emotion
- how the belief system, thinking, and knowledge affect one’s emotions
- interpretations and meanings attached to sensory stimuli
physiological component of emotion
- interactions between cortical and subcortical structures (hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus)
- thalamus sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways (one directly to amygdala, one to cerebral cortex)
- emotions accompanied by sympathetic autonomic nervous system (ANS) then by parasympathetic ANS activation
behavioural component of emotion
- expressive behaviours (observe and infer emotions of others)
what are the fundamental emotional patterns?
- expression of certain emotions is similar across variety of cultures
- children blind from birth express basic emotions as sighted children do
James Lange theory of emotion
- somatic theory of emotion
- body informs mind
- physiological reactions determine emotions
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
-cognition is invovled
- stimuli to thalmus to cortex to emotion
schacter theory of emotion
- look to external cues to decide how we feel
- physiological arousal = how strongly we feel
- labeling what we feel
what is said about James Lange theory and people with spinal cord injuries?
- James-Lange says feedback from the body’s reactions to eliciting stimuli is critical to emotional experience
- People with spinal cord injuries support idea that feedback from the body is NOT necessary for emotional experience
facial feedback hypothesis
- muscular feedback to the brain plays a key role in emotional experience
- vascular theory of emotional feedback= tensing facial muscles alters temperature of blood flow (Cooling = positive affect, Warm = negative affect)
