chapter 8: memory Flashcards
refers to both the structures and processes involved in both the storage and retrieval of information
memory
typically refers to our recollection of a specific event
a memory
a way of describing the processes involved in memory using terms and phrases that relate them to looking around in physical or virtual space
search metaphor
How did Plato and Aristotle describe memory
they described memory as a wax tablet
- experiences pressed into the tablet, creating shapes and patterns of writing
- out task is to search over the tablet and find the correct written passage when we try to remember (search metaphor)
how has the metaphor of memory transformed
earlier metaphors - rooms of a house, a library, a purse
recent metaphors - oriented toward computers and recording devices (virtual space)
the inability to remember something (couldn’t find it in our mental space”
failure of search
why search metaphor isn’t the best explanation
it can’t explain why we have trouble remembering things we’ve seen hundreds of times, if a memory is like an object it should be findable
describes how we primarily use memory to cobble together a useful response using both what we know and the situation around us
reconstruction metaphor
why is the reconstruction metaphor better
rather than searching specifically for an information, you create a useful response given the situation at hand and what you’ve stored (adaptive response)
models that talk about how memories are formed and retrieved, draws comparisons between human memory and how a computer processes information
information-processing models
the process of how information is initially learned
encoding
the problem the brain must solve to transform an experience into a memory
encoding problem
the process of maintaining information about an event over time (how information is physically represented in the brain)
storage
the problem the brain must solve to maintain information in the brain over time, whether short or long
storage problem
a system that keeps information translated by the senses briefly active in a relatively unaltered, unexamined form.
allows us to perceive the world as a unified whole rather than a series of staggered images and sounds (iconic and echoic memories)
sensory memory
a system that actively holds onto a limited amount of information at the front of the mind so we can manipulate and process it (short-term or working memory)
often compared to RCM in a computer in a computer-driven metaphor
immediate memory
three main properties of immediate memory
representation, duration, and capacity
described in terms of how the information is represented or “coded”
representation
the mental experience of hearing yourself talk “in your head”, taken as evidence for verbal representation in immediate memory
inner voice
evidence for the existence of inner voice?
errors people make in immediate recall (sound-alike errors)
proves that immediate memory are primarily auditory because we sound-alike errors are more common than look-alike errors
the mental experience of seeing something using your imagination, taken as evidence for visual representation in immediate memory
inner eye
how do we know inner eye exists
when a mental image in bigger, it’s easier to answer questions about the image, which applies to real images as well, tells us that mental imagery operates similarly to actual imagery
how long a memory system can contain information before it is forgotten (indefinite with rehearsal but only three seconds or so without rehearsal)
duration
the process of repeating information to yourself, “re-hearing” information over and over again
rehearsal
how much information can be held in a memory system at any one time, typically considered to be whatever you can rehearse in roughly 2 seconds
capacity
the number of items that can be kept active in immediate memory at one time
memory span
a process of arranging information into compact meaningful sections so that they can be more easily rehearsed in immediate memory
chunking
a model of immediate memory that emphasizes its role as a system for manipulating information in consciousness
working memory model (Baddeley’s model)
two places where information is managed in working memory model
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
where auditory and verbal information is temporarily stored and manipulated
phonological loop
representation of the inner eye in the model, represents a place where visual and spatial information is stored and manipulated
visuospatial sketchpad
a hypothetical portion of the working memory model that directs the activities of working memory, including the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the flow of information between working and long-term memory
central executive
how many seconds does the amount of information in immediate memory begin to drop off precipitously
3 seconds
memory systems that we use to store and recall information over extended periods of time (practically limitless in total storage capacity)
long-term memory
three types of long-term memory
episodic, semantic, and procedural memory
autobiographical memories that are based on life events, whose contents pertain to specific events (episodes)
episodic memories
memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful information not based on personal experience (useful for language and other general knowledge)
semantic memories
memories who contents pertain to how something is done (recalls the process)
procedural memory
refers to a process of actively manipulating information in immediate memory to meaningfully connect it to other information already stored in long-term memory
elaborative rehearsal
involves making meaningful connection to existing knowledge (encodes information semantically, based on meaning) more effective in remembering information
deep processing
encoding information based on only its surface characteristics
shallow processing
types of elaborations
- imagery: associating an information with an image already stored in your memory (creating a vivid imagination)
- organization: remembering information using categorical or organizational strategies
- distinctiveness: enhancing memory emphasizing differences among items that initially seem highly similar
- self-reference: interprets information in relation to oneself
which two type of elaboration are recommended to use in combination with one another
organization and distinctiveness
cons of each elaboration methods
- imagery: information encoded isn’t an exact representation of an object, it’s more abstract
- organization: often leads to mistakes within the category
- distinctiveness: time-consuming, difficult to remember large amounts of information
- self-reference: more difficult with more detailed material, less effective for people from more collectivist cultures
what are the four strategies to structure the encoding process to ensure effective learning
- the use of spacing
- the use of mnemonics
- the use of techniques that fit well with the functions of out brains
- the use of retrieval practice
“cramming”, refers to the repeated exposure to or study of to-be-remembered information over a very short period of time or without gaps between repetitions (isn’t effective for longer term)
massed practice
the observation that learning is most robust when repeated exposure to or study of to-be-remembered material occurs over a longer timeframe (improves episodic, semantic, and procedural memory)
spacing effect
techniques used to improve memory that provide a framework for one to engage in kinds of meaningful processing outlines for encoding and recall
mnemonics
a mnemonic technique based around a catchy rhyme, creating mental associations between items to be remembered and items that are already associated with numbers
peg-word technique
a mnemonic memory strategy to help people remember new information in sequential order, involves using imagined physical locations to aid memory (dates back to ancient Rome and Greece) (mind palace)
method of loci
a mnemonics memory strategy that provides us with cues to the to-be-remembered information’s organizational structure
phrases, acronyms, and initializations
a subfield of memory research focused on investigating how the brain is designed to learn and remember given evolutionary considerations
adaptive memory
what did memory researchers discover from adaptive memory
- information processed for its relevance to our own survival leads to high levels of later recall
- living, animal things are more memorable than non-living, inanimate things
a popular method for memorizing long random numbers and decks of playing cards
person-action-object (PAO) strategy
“testing effect”, the phenomenon that the repeated retrieval of information is more useful for long-term memory than other tasks, such as the repeated reading of the same information (effective for later recall in longer term)
retrieval practice
the problem the brain must solve to recover information from long-term memory
retrieval problem
pieces of information in the present that help us remember events from the past
- central to remembering
- can be specific or broad
- thought to be the reason why elaboration works so well at improving memory
cues
remembering previously learned information without any other context to aid in remembering
free recall
remembering previously learned information with the aid of a clue or information that helps provide context
cued recall
the idea that retrieval cues are only useful as long as they match the original context of how to-be-remembered information was originally learned
encoding specificity principle/encoding-retrieval match
the observation that engaging in similar processes at both encoding and retrieval tends to enhance recall on a final test
transfer-appropriate processing
remembering that occurs consciously and with intent
explicit memory
remember that occurs without conscious realization or intent
implicit memory
how do we assess implicit memory performance
it is assessed by determining whether a person’s actions or responses are influence by previous experience, without specifically asking the person to recall the experience
what did Danial Schacter refer memory errors as
the seven sins of memory, which comes in two types: errors of omission and errors of commission
memory errors where information cannot be brought to mind
error omission
memory errors where wrong or unwanted information is brought to mind
error of commission
three types of errors of omission
transience, absent-mindedness, and blocking
“forgetting”, a description for how sometimes we are unable to retrieve information because it has been forgotten due to the interference of information we have processes in the meantime (due to lack of appropriate cues to aid recall)
transience
the theory that memories fade away due to the passage of time (can’t explain the vast majority of forgetting)
decay
the inability to retrieve information due to the influence of newer, similar information
retroactive interference
the inability to retrieve information due to the influence of older, similar information
proactive interference
a description of how memories sometimes are simply unavailable because of a failure to encode them (due to lack of attention or a failure to elaborately rehearse the information)
absent-mindedness
a description for how not enough distinctive cues are available to help us recover a specific information (the information is blocked when cues does not effectively reinstate the original encoding conditions)
blocking
a state when someone cannot remember a piece of information but have a powerful feeling that they know exactly what they are trying to remember
tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state
four types of errors of commission
misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence
occurs when we incorrectly recall the source of the information we are trying to remember
misattribution
a description of a feeling that one has already experienced a sequence of events (can’t remember the source of the information)
déjá vu
memories for the details surrounding events that are both surprising and particularly significant (susceptible to errors)
flashbulb memories
a description for how memories can sometimes be altered by context in which they are remembered to better fit the current context
suggestibility
a phenomenon in which misleading information alters a subsequent memory, typically an eyewitness account
misinformation effect
how to prevent suggestibility
questioners should ask neutrally worded questions that don’t make any assumptions about what happened
the result of the therapist unintentionally guiding clients to imagine events that had never occured
repressed memories
a description of how memories can change as a result of the influence of knowledge and beliefs
bias
a highly organized sets of facts and knowledge about specific kinds of information (highly useful for remembering) (information could be overgeneralized or exceptions to the schemas leading to bias)
memory schemas
a description of how memories are sometimes retrieved when they are not wanted (typically negative or traumatic memories) (PTSD)
persistence
how is forgetting helpful
helps us smooth over unpleasant events in our lives and helps us to keep in mind only relevant information
an exceptionally rare medical condition that leads to near perfect autobiographical recall (remembering everything) (larger amygdala and far more connection to the hippocampus)
hyperthymesia
memory loss due to physical damage or problems in the brain
amnesia
the loss of memories prior to a specific traumatic event or other conditions
retrograde amnesia
the inability to make new memories into long-term memory (due to specific brain damage to the hippocampus)
anterograde amnesia
Henry Molaison
suffered from severe seizure and was treated by removing his hippocampus, he had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia
what is not responsible for the sin of transience
decay/time, information that occurs in the time that elapses is
