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PSYA01 > chapter 3: biology and neuroscience > Flashcards

chapter 3: biology and neuroscience Flashcards

1
Q

main interpreter of both the event in your body and those in the outer world, overall purpose is to create behaviour and make sense of the surroundings

A

human nervous system

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2
Q

makes up the central nervous system, the ultimate problem solvers that send and receive information to and from all areas of your body

A

brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

cells that transmit electrical impulses

A

neurons

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4
Q

brain’s communicators that provide structural support

A

glial cells

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5
Q

anything related to nervous system structure or function

A

neural

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6
Q

interconnected group of dendrites and axons of many neurons dedicated to a set of functions

A

neural networks

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7
Q

extensions for the membrane of the cell body and they receive chemical messages from other neurons

A

dendrites

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8
Q

can tell the neuron to activate (excitation) or quiet down (inhibition)

A

neurotransmitter

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9
Q

proteins that are embedded in the membranes that binds with neurotransmitters that help communication in the nervous system

A

receptors

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10
Q

cell body of a neuron, the location of metabolic processing and contains the cell’s organelles

A

soma

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11
Q

a long, narrow projection from the cell body that transmits the signal from the soma to the end of the axon

A

axon

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12
Q

the beginning of the axon, intersection between soma and axon

A

axon hillock

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13
Q

the part of axon that releases the neurotransmitter, once action potential gets to the axon terminal, it triggers the release of the neurotransmitter

A

axon terminal

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14
Q

“synaptic knobs”, they very end of the axon terminal where neurotransmitters exit into the synapse

A

terminal buttons

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15
Q

little bubbles at the terminal button that store neurotransmitter molecules, which are then released in the synaptic cleft

A

vesicles

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16
Q

space between the end of the neuron that releases a neurotransmitter and the end of the receiving neuron

A

synaptic cleft

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17
Q

small fluid-filled gap between neurons into which neurotransmitters are released

A

synapse

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18
Q

the portion of the neuron that releases the neurotransmitter into the synapse

A

presynaptic neuron

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19
Q

the other side of the synapse, contains receptors ready to bind with neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron

A

postsynaptic receptor

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20
Q

a protein and fatty substance that wraps around the axon to protect and increase the speed of action potential

A

myelin

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21
Q

breaks in the myelin that helps the signal travel down the axon by allowing ions to enter and change the charge inside the cell for a more efficient transmission

A

nodes of ranvier

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22
Q

caused by the natural imbalance of electrical charge that exists between the inside and outside of the axon, rests at -70mV (more sodium on the outside and potassium on the inside maintained by unequal permeability of the membrane and the sodium-potassium pump)

A

resting potential

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23
Q

charge is far from 0

A

polarized

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24
Q

refers to when we are moving away from being polarized, the more depolarized = more likely to get action potential
small influx of sodium ions trigger a cascade of voltage sensitive sodium ion channels, allowing more sodiums to move to the inside of the membrane down the concentration gradient, causing the membrane potential to raise to +40mV, if enough sodium gates open to reach threshold, action potential occurs

A

depolarization

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25
Q

potassium channels open and they move to the outside of the axon down the concentration gradient, causing the membrane to drop back to -65mV, leaving the membrane with more sodium on the inside and potassium on the outside

A

repolarization

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26
Q

another action potential can’t happen until proper concentration is established so ATP attaches to sodium-potassium pump, allowing 3 sodiums out and 2 potassiums in to re-establish the balance

A

recovery

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27
Q

causes a neuron to move closer to activation (more positive)

A

excitatory

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28
Q

causes the charge inside a neuron to move away from the activation (more negative)

A

inhibitory

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29
Q

mimic the action of an endogenous neurotransmitter

A

agonists

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30
Q

neurotransmitter naturally produced by the body

A

endogenous

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31
Q

prevent the action of the endogenous neurotransmitter

A

antagonists

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32
Q

a chemical that either partially enhances, mimics, or blocks a neurotransmitter action, meaning that they activate the receptor with less power than endogenous neurotransmitter

A

partial agonists/antagonists

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33
Q

excitatory, helps with learning and movement

A

glutamate

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34
Q

inhibitory, helps with learning, anxiety regulation through inhibition of neurons, binds to its receptor to open chloride channel

A

GABA

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35
Q

excitatory, helps with learning and muscle action, binds to its receptor to open sodium channel

A

Acetylcholine

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36
Q

excitatory/inhibitory, helps with learning and reward/pleasure

A

dopamine

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37
Q

excitatory/inhibitory, helps with elevation/depression of mood

A

serotonin and norepinephrine

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38
Q

excitatory/inhibitory, helps with regulation of pain responses

A

endorphins

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39
Q

“caretaker”, provide structural support for neurons, bring nutrients, remove waste and dead neurons, and speed up electrical impulses

A

glial cells

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40
Q

glial cells that wrap the myelin insulation in the central nervous system

A

oligodendrocytes

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41
Q

glial cells that wrap the myelin insulation in the peripheral nervous system

A

Schwann cells

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42
Q

glial cells that help get nutrition to neurons and maintain the balance of charged particles inside and outside of the neuron

A

astrocytes

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43
Q

glial cells that clean debris and get rid of germs

A

microglia

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44
Q

disorders which neuron die over time and cause progressive loss of a particular ability (dysfunctional astrocytes have been implicated in this disorder)

A

neurodegenerative diseases

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45
Q

a large bundle of axons from many neurons together in a tube that extends a large distance, extend from cell bodies that are in the CNS

A

nerve

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46
Q

axons that carry signals away from CNS to trigger neurotransmitter or hormone release in organs or muscles

A

efferents

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47
Q

axons that carry signals back to CNS from organs and muscles

A

afferents

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48
Q

the ability of neurons and their networks to change and adapt

A

neuroplasticity

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49
Q

all the cells and support inside the skull vertebral column (brain and spinal cord), contains gray matter (neurons and glia) and white matter (bundled of myelinated axons

A

central nervous system

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50
Q

local processing of information

A

gray matter

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51
Q

helps different areas of the brain to share information by connecting neurons via axons and dendrites

A

white matter

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52
Q

the nerves outside the skull vertebral column, as well as the specialized sensory endings (retinal cells, touch receptors, hair cells in the ear)

A

peripheral nervous system

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53
Q

“information highway of the body” conducts simple reflex-level processing and communication with PNS

A

spinal cord

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54
Q

“voluntary” controls the movement of the torso, head, and limbs, nerves that control and communicate with skeletal muscles

A

somatic nervous system

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55
Q

“automatic” controls the more automatic functions of the body, anything below the level of consciousness

A

autonomic nervous system

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56
Q

individual joints that make up the vertebral column, allowing the ability to flex, extend, and twist the spine, also allows space for peripheral nerves to exit the spinal cord for connection and communication with the body

A

vertebrae

57
Q

“fight or flight”, activated in a life or death situation, or when feeling nervous or frightened
when activated, heart rate and respiration increases, inhibition of digestive activity, more sweat as body temperature rises, narrow vision for focusing, blood flow routed to systems that aid in fighting

A

sympathetic nervous system

58
Q

“resting”, responsible for resting, digestion, and repairing the body, originate in the lower brain and sacral spinal cord,
when activated, heart rate and respiration slow down, blood routed to digestive system, organs recover, digest, and become sexually aroused

A

parasympathetic

59
Q

activates both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
increases heart rate and respiration, increased neural activation of our muscles, and increased blood flow to the genitals

A

excitement of attraction

60
Q

both regulate basic life functions and connect the PNS and CNS to regulate what we do and pay attention to

A

medulla and pons

61
Q

the part of the brain closest to the spinal cord that helps regulate life functions such as breathing and heart rate, swallowing (basic life functions)

A

medulla oblongata

62
Q

large amount of this ingredient will depress activity in the medulla so much that it will no longer sustain heart rate and respiration needed to be alive

A

ethanol

63
Q

regulate arousal, coordinate the sense with the cerebellum, controls facial expressions and eye movements, and serves as the connection point between the upper brain to the lower brain and spinal cord

A

pons

64
Q

originating in inner ear that helps the brain sense body’s orientation and regulates left-right coordination, enters the brain through pons

A

vestibulocochlear nerve

65
Q

network of neuron in the centre of medulla and pons, regulate our level of arousal, focus of our attention, and filters out irrelevant stimuli on a daily basis (dysfunctional RAS may lead to ADHD)

A

reticular activating system (RAS)

66
Q

regulate our endocrine systems, emotions, and emotional memory, contains the prefrontal cortex, olfactory cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and hypothalamus

A

the limbic system

67
Q

involved in aggression responses to threats (fear), disgust, appetitive responses to food, and romantic love, increases secretion of norepinephrine in fight or flight response, active in forming memories associated with events tied to strong emotions

A

amygdala

68
Q

experimental destruction of the amygdala in animals, making them docile, damaged amygdala in humans make them lose awareness of their emotions and often respond inappropriately in situations that trigger emotional responses

A

amygdalectomy

69
Q

circular structure in the temporal lobes as a loop of neurons that are activated when we are forming memories, helps us remember what we want to return to or avoid

A

hippocampus

70
Q

located underneath the neocortex, increased activity when there’s physical pain or excluded socially, helps us focus our attention and thoughts on unpleasant things

A

cingulate gyrus

71
Q

modulate movement commands in the brain, increased activity when initiating or terminating a movement, helps us learn to make complex movements more automatic

A

basal ganglia

72
Q

where the inputs to the basal ganglia come in

A

striatum

73
Q

consisting of globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus, closer to the lower part of the striatum, more associated with reward processing, motivation, and emotional aspects of behavior

A

ventral striatum

74
Q

consisting of clustered groups of neurons called caudate and putamen, the upper part of the striatum, more involved in motor functions, habit formation, and procedural learning

A

dorsal striatum

75
Q

send inhibitory outputs to thalamus to integrate sensory and motor plans

A

globus pallidus

76
Q

(black substance) send inhibitory outputs to thalamus to integrate sensory and motor plans, secrete dopamine, loss of these cells results in loss of the circuit that initiates and terminates movements (Parkinson’s disease)

A

substantia nigra

77
Q

excitatory effect on the thalamus and drives motor behaviour

A

direct pathway

78
Q

net inhibitory effect on its target, helps the basal ganglia shut down motor patterns

A

indirect pathway

79
Q

patients with Parkinson’s disease have a hard time initiating and terminating movements

A

cogwheel rigidity

80
Q

“little brain”, rhythm and timing machine, simultaneously receive and organize input from many CNS networks

A

cerebellum

81
Q

helps match sensory input with motor plans in order to fine-tune movement patterns

A

spinocerebellar

82
Q

processes information from the inner ear to help adjust posture and balance

A

vestibulocerebellar / vestibular sacs

83
Q

manages connections with the pons and thalamus to adjust the timing and planning of movements

A

cerebrocerebellar

84
Q

the 6-layered portion of the thalamus that processes and organized visual information, send projections to the visual cortex

A

lateral geniculate nucleus

85
Q

the portion of thalamus that evaluates and organizes auditory information, send projection to the auditory cortex

A

medial geniculate nucleus

86
Q

“the relay station”, all senses except smell (straight to temporal lobes) must pass through the thalamus before they are relayed to neocortex for organization

A

thalamus

87
Q

“higher-level processing” the outer layer of the brain, consists of four lobes, looks this way because of the gyri, sulci, and fissures allowing us to fit more brain in a small space

A

neocortex

88
Q

parts of the neocortex that merge information from primary areas like the visual and auditory cortex (making sense of the things)

A

association cortex

89
Q

“executive decisions”, decision making, movement, and personality, outputs tends to be inhibitory

A

frontal lobes

90
Q

most posterior structure in the frontal lobes, initiate voluntary movement

A

motor cortex

91
Q

axons that control movement of the muscles in the body (spinal) and head/face (cobulbar)

A

motor axons of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts

92
Q

a graphical representation of how we would look like in proportion to the number of neurons dedicated to a specific body part/function in our brain

A

sensory homunculus

93
Q

“coordinator” the front portion of frontal lobes, a network of neurons and glia heavily involved in decision making (when, why , and how we do things), last region to undergo the process of myelination, has both excitatory and inhibitory connections (if, then decision), dysfunction in the area correlate with negative symptoms in schizophrenic patients (social withdrawal)

A

prefrontal cortex (PFC)

94
Q

bottom inside part of the cortex, helps modulate behaviour based on fear and been implicated in moral decision-making

A

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

95
Q

top and side of the head, helps maintain information in our working memory and change how we do things depending on different tasks

A

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

96
Q

“space, time, and numbers”, processing of numbers and performing calculations

A

parietal lobes

97
Q

if right side of our parietal lobes are injured, we will not navigate the space around us well or misinterpret sensation from our left side

A

spatial relations

98
Q

anterior portion of the parietal lobes, receives input from the contralateral (opposite) side of the body, allowing information carried from sensory receptors to integrate with other areas of the brain, helps us coordinate both sides of the body

A

sensory cortex

99
Q

“listen to memories”, right above the ear, assist us in forming memories and processing sound input from the auditory nerves, lesions in this area result in memory loss, and loss of ability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia), houses the cortical site of small and taste synpases

A

temporal lobes

100
Q

neurons dies

A

lesions

101
Q

neurons in the temporal lobe dedicated to receiving and processing messages sent from the ears through axons of the vestibulocochlear nerve

A

primary auditory cortex

102
Q

important area for the processing and understanding of language

A

Wernicke’s area

103
Q

“vision of the present”, processing light stimuli

A

occipital lobes

104
Q

the x-shaped pathway that allows for the crossing of fibres from the nasal retina to the optic tract on the other side. This enables vision from one side of both the eyes to be appreciated by the occipital cortex of the opposite side

A

optic chaism

105
Q

left visual field contact the medial portion of your left eye and the lateral part of the right eye’s retina, the neurons are then depolarized and activate in the right thalamus and the right occipital cortex
right visual field ends on in left occipital cortex

A

right visual field and left visual field

106
Q

each hemisphere performs different functions

A

brain laterality

107
Q

more artistic and creative, sees things globally, necessary to maintain a complete sense of what we are hearing and saying

A

right brain

108
Q

analytic, logic, responds to detail and specificity, language

A

left brain

109
Q

“tough body”, thick bundle of fibres to connect the two hemisphere and allow transfer of information, helps sensory information (except olfaction) to cross to other side, cutting this area is a treatment for severe epilepsy, which calms seizures

A

corpus callosum

110
Q

have trouble seeing and naming an object in their left visual field because visual information from the left is process in the right visual cortex, and the information is stuck on one side of the brain

A

split-brain patients

111
Q

consists of series of glands throughout the body that release hormones, and serves as a secondary control system that assist and gives valuable feedback to the nervous system

A

endocrine system

112
Q

secretes hormones and controls the pituitary gland via direct nerve stimulation, regulates homeostasis, controls several functions in the autonomic and endocrine systems
damage to this area results in deficits in regulating hunger responses, sexual behaviour, body temperature, and aggression

A

hypothalamus

113
Q

secretes melatonin to regulate sleep cycles

A

pineal gland

114
Q

secretes hormones that affect sexual behaviour, reproduction, circulatory function, hunger, and responses to aggression

A

pituitary gland

115
Q

“love hormone” secreted by hypothalamus, released during orgasms, when we look at pictures of loved one, or being near them

A

oxytocin

116
Q

chronic stress involves a triangle connecting the brain and endocrine system
hypothalamus secretes hormones that control the pituitary gland, which controls the adrenal glands, chronic stress leads to hypothalamus being more active, driving the pituitary to tell the adrenal glands to produce more cortisol (stress hormone), leaving us feeling fatigued, storing more fat, and becoming less alert over time

A

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)

117
Q

how the nervous system modulates immune function

A

psychoneuroimmunology

118
Q

how we know what we know

A

epistemology

119
Q

techniques we use to look at structures in the nervous system in great detail

A

structural imaging

120
Q

take tissue our of the system and tease it apart to see how things are connected

A

dissection

121
Q

visualize and measure changes in nervous system activity simultaneously

A

functional imaging

122
Q

published by ancient Egyptians about the brain around 1600BCE

A

oldest surviving texts

123
Q

separated neurons by hand with the microscopes in the late 1800s

A

Otta Friedrich Karl Deiter

124
Q

invented by Camillo Glogi, dyeing neurons, axons, and dendrites to make them more visible on microscopes

A

staining method

125
Q

believed some forms of energy is needed to make muscles move, found out frog leg could move with electrical stimulation (animal electricity)

A

Luigi Galvanni

126
Q

in the 1990s, he made it possible to stain neurons in living tissue

A

Martin Chalfie

127
Q

developed by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, to record electrical activity from individual neurons

A

patch-clamp

128
Q

a method that allows us to record directly from clusters of electrical activity in the brain (Hans Berger in 1924), doesn’t show us activity changes in deeper brain structures like basal ganglia

A

electroencephalogram (EEG)

129
Q

done by creating computer programs and equipment that filter noise (energy or magnetic field that interferes with the detection)

A

signal-to-noise ratio

130
Q

projects an image onto a film of the brain

A

autorodiography

131
Q

has access to deeper brain structures, measures the oxygen level changes as related to blood flow around neurons, non-invasive and no radiation though cardiovascular disease or compromised function can make results unreliable

A

fMRI

132
Q

inserted into the brain during surgery to measure individual clusters of neurons

A

indwelling electrodes

133
Q

helps us figure out which neurotransmitters were being released, injects a radioactively tagged molecule that competes with target neurotransmitter for its receptor binding site, has radiation exposure

A

PET scan

134
Q

threes ways to shut down a circuit

A

injecting inhibitory drug that keeps the neuron from firing action potential (reversible), injecting a drug that overexcites neurons and kills them, and cutting them out of the nervous system physically through ablation (both are irreversible)

135
Q

the surgical removal of a body tissue

A

ablation

136
Q

a method used with MRI scans that allows white matter (axons with myelin) to be seen on scans, the interpretation can be difficult in tracts that have different kinds of fibres

A

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

137
Q

uses x-rays that pass through the body and can generate images of slices of the body, fast and cheap but has radiation exposure

A

CT scan

138
Q

uses magnetic fields to image alignments of hydrogen ions, its non-invasive with great precision and no radiation but really expensive

A

MRI

PSYA01 (8 decks)

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