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PSYA01 > chapter 7: learning > Flashcards

chapter 7: learning Flashcards

1
Q

change in behaviour due to experience, a relatively permanent change in behaviour not due to drugs, maturation / development, injury, or disease

A

learning

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2
Q

any observable action (words, gestures, responses) that can be repeated, measured, and are affected by a situation to produce or remove some outcome, also refers to biological activity (cellular level)

A

behaviour

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3
Q

a term for something you’re born knowing how to do, not a result of learning

A

innate

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4
Q

automatic and simple responses, a type of stimulus-response relationship that involves behaviours occurring automatically in response to its stimulus

A

reflexes

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5
Q

how we learn what happens when we do something

A

operant conditioning

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6
Q

when we learn something by watching others

A

social (vicarious) learning

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7
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A
  • studied how dogs digest food in 1900s by examining how much dogs drooled when they receive meat powder
  • noticed drooling associated with other actions leading up to feeding the dogs, and discovered reaction that was measurable and learned in the presence of triggers
  • classical conditioning
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8
Q

involves associating two events that occur together, one seemingly insignificant event signals an important event, a conditioned stimulus indicates the presence or absence of a conditioned stimulus (one way in which we develop fears)

A

classical conditioning / Pavlovian conditioning

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9
Q

can be anything in the environment that we can detect, measurable, and can evoke a response or behaviour

A

stimulus

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10
Q

a type of stimulus in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important event requires no conditioning to effect behaviour (stimulus that leads to automatic response)

A

unconditional stimulus

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11
Q

an innate reflex, biologically important response occurs because of an unconditional stimulus

A

unconditional response

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12
Q

an event that requires learning to be meaningful and is only meaningful because the event tells us something about the unconditional stimulus (triggers conditional response)

A

conditional stimulus

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13
Q

a conditional reflex, a learned response that occurs to the conditional stimulus in preparation for the unconditional stimulus

A

conditional response

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14
Q

a descriptor for behaviour in Pavlovian conditioning which indicates a response to a stimulus is involuntary

A

elicits

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15
Q

refers to the probability of learning occurring if the unconditional stimulus does or does not occur

A

conditional

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16
Q

a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response, does not indicate whether a unconditional stimulus will occur

A

neutral stimulus

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17
Q

a type of Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditional stimulus indicates that an unconditional stimulus will occur (positive correlation between the CS and US)

A

excitatory conditioning

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18
Q

the US occurs within a few seconds of the start of CS, most effective excitatory conditioning procedure

A

short-delayed conditioning

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19
Q

the US occurs after the CS has been there for a while, doesn’t pinpoint well exactly when the US will occur

A

long-delayed conditioning

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20
Q

the US occurs minutes or hours after the CS has stopped, the events in this procedure are so far apart they seem to have no relation

A

trace conditioning

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21
Q

a type of Pavlovian conditioning in which the CS indicates that no unconditional stimulus will occur (negative correlation between the CS an US), one event signals that another will not occur

A

inhibitory conditioning

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22
Q

the US occurs with the start of the CS (CS and US overlap completely)

A

simultaneous conditioning

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23
Q

the US occurs a few seconds before the start of the CS, so the CS indicates no US will occur

A

backward conditioning

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24
Q

occurs when two factors appear causally related to one another but are not

A

spurious correlation

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25
Q

a learned response where animals avoid eating the food in the future that is associated with illness

A

taste aversion

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26
Q

gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behaviour decreasing or disappearing, loss of associative strength as an increasingly weaker conditional response (CS appearing without US will cause extinction)

A

extinction

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27
Q

involves repeatedly presenting a conditional stimulus without an unconditional stimulus

A

Pavlovian extinction

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28
Q

involves intense fear, agitation, and possibly social isolation

A

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

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29
Q

a learning phenomenon in which a stimulus that predicts the absence of an otherwise expected outcome comes to control an organism’s responding (generally arbitrary stimuli) (no fear)

A

conditioned inhibitors (safety signals)

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30
Q

a type of stimulus that is something you like and for which you will work

A

pleasant/appetitive stimuli

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31
Q

a type of stimulus that is something you don’t like and for which you won’t work

A

unpleasant/aversive/noxious stimuli

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32
Q

image set contains images meant to elicit an emotional response from the research participants (categorized as pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant)

A

international affective picture system (IAPs)

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33
Q

involves responding similarly to conceptually or physically similar stimuli (an event that has not been paired with US also elicits or causes the CR) (tends to happen with phobias)

A

stimulus generalization

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34
Q

involves responding differently to different events, opposite of stimulus generalization, CR only occur when the original CS is introduced

A

stimulus discrimination

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35
Q

a neutral stimulus is systematically and repeatedly paired with a CS that reliably elicits the CR

A

higher-order conditioning

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36
Q

what is the difference between typical Pavlovian conditioning and higher-order conditioning

A

Pavlovian conditioning: neutral stimulus -> unconditional stimulus
higher-order conditioning: (already paired neutral stimulus -> unconditional stimulus) neutral stimulus -> conditional stimulus

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37
Q

an approach to science that focuses on how we learn new behaviours, and how those behaviours change across different situations

A

behaviourism

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38
Q

little Albert experiment

A

conducted by John B. Watson (behaviourist), involves developing a Pavlovian fear response to furry, white objects in a 9-month-old baby

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39
Q

exposure therapy used to treat extreme aversions through a combination of graded exposure and relaxation (developed by Joseph Wolpe)

A

systematic desensitization

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40
Q

intense, unrealistic fears directed toward people, objects, or situations

A

phobias

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41
Q

describes situations in which we can choose among different options based on our previous experiences (we learn that our behaviour has consequences) (reward and punishment)

A

operant (instrumental) conditioning

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42
Q

Edward Thorndike

A

known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes (required a certain set of behaviours to open a door)

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43
Q

a method that involves several attempts to find a solution to a problem

A

trial-and-error learning

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44
Q

the process of interacting with some response option that has an effect on the environment

A

instrumental learning

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45
Q

behaviours that lead to satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated, whereas behaviours that lead to undesired outcomes are less likely to recur

A

law of effect

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46
Q

“stamping in”, means that we associate a situation with behaviour when that behaviour leads to something pleasant

A

satisfaction

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47
Q

“stamping out”, means that we do not associate a situation with behaviour when that behaviour leads to something unpleasant

A

discomfort

48
Q

founded by B.F. Skinner in 1930s, the philosophy of science that treats thinking and feelings like any other behaviour

A

radical behaviourism

49
Q

how do Skinner and Thorndike differ

A

they both recognized the important of environment events that preceded behaviour, but Skinner included the consequence as a part of what we learn about our behaviour

50
Q

anything in the physical environment that we can detect and tells us something about the consequences of our actions (people, inanimate objects, signs)

A

antecedents

51
Q

stimuli that can increase or decrease the probability of future behaviour (events that happen after and because of a response)

A

consequences

52
Q

use of a choice-unique outcome for each type of correct choice in a conditional discrimination task to increase rate of learning

A

differential consequences

53
Q

the outcome of a different behaviour has no difference, takes longer to learn

A

non-differential consequences

54
Q

a term used to help define behaviour: if a dead man can do it, then it is not a behaviour

A

dead man test

55
Q

if-then rule, if you do this (behaviour), then that will happen (consequences)

A

contigencies

56
Q

(+) any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows, occurs each time the desired behaviour occurs

A

reinforcement

57
Q

(-) adverse event that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows, must be right after the behaviour to decrease behaviour

A

punishment

58
Q

the application or the addition of some consequence

A

positive

59
Q

the removal of some consequences

A

negative

60
Q

(+) favourable events or outcomes that are presented after the behaviour, response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of something (add something good and behaviour increases)

A

positive reinforcement

61
Q

(-) the removal of an unfavourable events or outcomes after the display of a behaviour, response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant
(remove something bad and behaviour increases)

A

negative reinforcement

62
Q

(+) presents an unfavourable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows (add something bad and behaviour decreases)

A

positive punishment

63
Q

(-) take away a pleasant event or outcome to weaken the response it follows (remove something good and behaviour decreases)

A

negative punishment (response cost, omission, time-out)

64
Q

a situation in which the aversive stimulus is already present a response removes or stops the unpleasant stimulus (a form of negative reinforcement)

A

escape

65
Q

a situation in which the aversive stimulus is not currently present but will occur unless you produce a response to cancel the unpleasant event (must experience the escape situation before we will make an avoidance response) (strong in people with anxiety disorders)

A

avoidance

66
Q

refer to the intrinsic value of a stimulus, assuming that this stimulus functions this way for most people

A

appetitive and noxious stimulus

67
Q

a type of behaviour, specifically, the response in which we’re interested

A

target behaviour

68
Q

a procedure in which a behaviour that was previously reinforced now has no consequences and becomes less likely to occur in the future (no reinforced and decreases) (nothing is added or removed and the target response decreases)

A

extinction

69
Q

an effect in which behaviour that was previously reinforced occurs at a higher rate without consequences at the beginning of extinction

A

extinction burst

70
Q

how does the target response changes before extinction occurs

A

response often increases in frequency, duration, and intensity before beginning a slow deceleration

71
Q

he determined how different schedules of reinforcement affected responding in extinction for different groups of pigeons

A

Jenkins

72
Q

behaviour exposed to a continuous reinforcement schedule will stop faster without reinforcement than behaviour exposed to an intermittent reinforcement schedule

A

partial reinforcement extinction effect

73
Q

involves selecting and reinforcing more complex responses that look like the response you want while extinguishing simpler forms of the target response

A

shaping

74
Q

positive reinforcement is used to

A

to keep behaviour going, to increase the magnitude of behaviour, and act as a part of shaping by the method of successive approximations to teach new responses

75
Q

operant chambers

A

invented by Skinner to automate the presentation of stimuli and collection of responses

76
Q

events or stimuli that follow behaviour and increase the future likelihood of that kind of response

A

reinforcers

77
Q

also known as the contingency analysis, it is a way to determine if the consequence you selected is a reinforcer and increases the frequency of a behaviour

A

reinforcer test

78
Q

positive vs negative reinforcers

A

positive reinforcers are produced (added) by the response and negative reinforcers are removed ( omitted) by the response

79
Q

a type of stimulus that are not learned, they naturally affect the responses they follow and include stimuli/events needed to maintain life

A

primary (unconditional ) reinforcers

80
Q

a type of primary reinforcer that typically include aversive events such as heat and pain

A

primary negative reinforcers

81
Q

a type of stimulus that influence responses because they signal or have been associated with a primary reinforcer (a stimulus may lose its reinforcing capacity)

A

secondary (conditional) reinforcers

82
Q

objects traded for several other reinforcers, they are special because they don’t lose their power to reinforce behaviour (money)

A

generalized conditioned reinforcers

83
Q

description in words and numbers of how and when we’ll earn reinforcers, discovered accidentally by Skinner

A

schedules of reinforcement

84
Q

a type of reinforcement where every response is reinforced

A

continuous reinforcement

85
Q

a type of reinforcement where only some responses are reinforced

A

intermittent reinforcement

86
Q

deliver reinforcers after a specific number of responses (based on responses)

A

ratio

87
Q

the requirement for each reinforcer is the same, the number of behaviour or length of time intervals are constant

A

fixed

88
Q

the required number of responses or length of time intervals vary

A

variable

89
Q

deliver reinforcers after at least two responses and a specified amount of time (based on time)

A

interval

90
Q

which reinforcement schedule is the most effective in learning? least effective?

A

variable ratio or continuous reinforcement schedule produces the highest rate of responses (1:1 ratio for responses to reinforcers)
fixed interval schedule produces the lowest rate of responding because the time between reinforcers is predictable

91
Q

response is reinforced only after a specific number of responses (break-and-run pattern of responding)

A

fixed ratio (FR)

92
Q

response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses (high and constant pattern of responding because responding faster directly produces more reinforcers in less time) (no pause, continuous respond to maximize the number of reinforcers)

A

variable ratio (VR)

93
Q

the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed (the time between each reinforcer is always same) (scallop pattern of responding, responding little at the beginning and get increasingly faster toward the end of the interval)

A

fixed interval (FI)

94
Q

response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed (slow and constant pattern of responding, reinforcers are unpredictable so we keep responding without pausing to maximize the number of reinforcers we earn)

A

variable interval (VI)

95
Q

break-and-run pattern

A

a run happens when we produce many responses quickly until we earn a reward (high response rate)
break occurs after the delivery of a reinforcer

96
Q

what is the differences between Pavlovian and operant conditioning

A

involuntary responses in Pavlovian conditioning and voluntary responses in operant conditioning

97
Q

Tolman and Bandura

A

reintroduced mental events to the study of behaviour, and this tradition of hypothesizing unobservable causes for behaviour continues today

98
Q

Edward C. Tolman

A

felt that explanations for behaviour should include more than environmental stimuli and publicly observable behaviour (mediational neobehaviorism / operational behaviourism)

99
Q

what is Tolman known for

A

his experiments on latent learning using rats running through T-mazes

100
Q

learning that we can’t see until we’re motivated to show it (no change in performance until we receive a reward)

A

latent learning

101
Q

a detailed representation of the physical environment and all possible routes that we can use when deciding where to go

A

cognitive map

102
Q

Zentall

A

emphasized the utility of the cognitive approach beyond cognitive maps and latent learning for studying both human and non-human animal behaviour

103
Q

Albert Bandura

A

discovered social learning, conducted the bobo doll experiment (adult hitting the doll for some children while the other half watched the adult gently interact with the doll)

104
Q

AKA observational learning, we learn from other people (expands animal learning further into the cognitive domain, doesn’t require reinforcement)

A

social learning

105
Q

a phase of social learning in which a model demonstrates a behaviour and an observer copies it

A

imitation

106
Q

Hopper

A

Chimpanzee experiment

107
Q

in order to copy the behaviour of another, the observer must see the model’s behaviour and see the model earn a reward for that behaviour (more likely to imitate successful behaviour)

A

transferred association

108
Q

a phase of social learning in which an observer watches a model doing something, more likely to imitate someone we like and respect (children with autism spectrum disorder may have trouble with this phase)

A

attentional

109
Q

a phase of social learning in which an observer remembers what the model did and can imitate that response later (think about performing the action ourselves)

A

retention

110
Q

a phase in social learning in which an observer copies what the model demonstrated (actually performing the actions)

A

production

111
Q

a phase in social learning in which the observer obtains the same outcome as the model for the same responses (more likely to repeat this behaviour)

A

motivational

112
Q

Seligman

A

proposed that some stimuli are more likely than others to become signals for important events, a concept he called biological preparedness (learned helplessness -> shocking dogs)

113
Q

aka cue-consequence learning or belongingness, the result in which some events serve as better signals or conditional stimuli than others due to evolution, implications for phobias (easier to condition a Pavlovian fear to snakes than to arbitrary stimuli like flowers)

A

biological preparedness

114
Q

how is phobias different from fear conditioning

A

phobias can be learned in a single trial, can persist even when we know that the feared object is harmless, things that could harm our ancestors that we probably won’t encounter, do not extinguish quickly or easily

115
Q

experiencing an aversive situation you can’t control prevents you from learning to control other aversive situations (becomes helpless because an organism have learned that, regardless of their actions, they have no ability to change the outcome)

A

learned helplessness

PSYA01 (8 decks)

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