Chapter 8 Flashcards
1
Q
What groups need is an institutionalized procedure that ensures that decision making optimizes creativity and potential innovation.what is one way this can be done
A
constructive controversy
2
Q
what is the nature of controversy
A
…
3
Q
definition, decisions involve conflict, why
A
as several alternative courses of action are identified and considered before agreement is reached.
4
Q
T: the conflict that arises when one person’s ideas, information, conclusions, theories, and opinions are incompatible with those of another person, and the two seek to reach an agreement
A
controversy
5
Q
how are controversies solved
A
diliberate discourse
6
Q
T: the discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of proposed actions
A
deliberate discourse
7
Q
5 steps for managing controversy ?
A
research and prepare a position
- present and advocate the position
- open discussion
- reverse perspectives
- reach a group decision through consensus
8
Q
Each alternative course of action is assigned to a two-person advocacy team T
A
researching a prepared position
9
Q
go over figure 8.1
A
…
10
Q
T: occurs when members of a group inhibit discussion to avoid any disagreement or arguments, emphasize agreement, and avoid realistic appraisal of alternative ideas and courses of action
A
concurring seeking
11
Q
what method are most group decisions based on
A
concurring seeking
12
Q
T: members of a decision-making group set aside their doubts and misgivings about whatever policy is favored by the emerging consensus to be able to concur with the other members
A
group think (similar to concurrence seeking)
13
Q
exists when two or more individuals argue positions that are incompatible with one another and a judge declares a winner on the basis of who presented their position the best:T
A
debate
14
Q
T: occurs when isolated individuals independently decide on a course of action without talking with one another
A
individualistic decision making
15
Q
T: can be defined as differences in opinion or conclusion, especially from the majority
A
dissent (often results in arg)
16
Q
T: is a thesis statement or claim supported by at least one reason
A
argument
17
Q
T: a social process in which two or more individuals engage in a dialogue where arguments are constructed, presented, and critiqued
A
arguing
18
Q
2 types of arguments
A
collaborative and adversarial
19
Q
4 main ways to make a decision
A
controversy, debate, concurring seeking, individualistic
20
Q
review table 8.2
A
..
21
Q
Decisions are by their very nature controversial
A
t
22
Q
theory of constructive controversy: what are the 2 ends of the continuum of how you can structure decision making
A
constructive controversy and concurrence seeking
23
Q
6 steps in the process of controversy
A
figure 8.2
24
Q
2 outcomes of controversy
A
productivity and positive attitudes
25
T: An individual’s mental interpretation of a situation based on his or her knowledge, understanding, and experiences.
cognitive perpective
26
what is step 1 in process of cog controversy
Organizing Information and Deriving Conclusions
27
step 2?
presenting and advocating positions
28
T: occurs when an individual presents a position and provides reasons why others should adopt it.
advocacy
29
Individuals’ commitment to decrease the more they have to advocate for it
f their position tends to increase as they advocate it. = freeze in epistemic process
30
step 3?
Being Challenged by Opposing Views
31
which step unfreezes the epistemic process
being challenged
32
what steps freeze the epistemic process
1 and 2
33
what is step 4
Conceptual Conflict and Uncertainty
34
The greater the number of people disagreeing with a person’s position, the more ... the context of the controversy.
competitive
35
what is step 5
Epistemic Curiosity and Perspective Taking
36
T: An active search for more information in hope of resolving the uncertainty caused by conceptual conflict.
epistemic curiosity
37
which step is epistemic curiosity triggers
5 to response uncertainty
38
Indices of epistemic curiosity in an individual include actively ...3
(a) searching for more information, (b) seeking to understand opposing positions and rationales, and (c) attempting to view the situation from opposing perspectives.
39
what is step 6
Reconceptualization, Synthesis, and Integration
40
T: occurs when individuals integrate a number of different ideas and facts into a single position.
synthesis
41
T: knowledge is available only in degrees of certainty
probabilistic
42
T: there is only right and wrong and authority should not be questioned
dualistic
43
T: authorities are seen as sometimes right, but right and wrong depend on your perspective
relativistic
44
what kind of thinking do you need for synthesis
probabilistic
45
6 steps of concurrence
1. dominant position derived
2. The Dominant Position Is Presented and Advocated
3. Being Confronted with the Demand to Concur and Conform
4. Conflict Between Public and Private Positions
5. Seeking Confirming Information
6. public consensus
46
how do controversy and concurrence seeking compare
tabel 8.3
47
Group decision making often goes wrong because ...3`
alternatives are not considered carefully, minority opinions are silenced, and disagreement among members’ conclusions is suppressed.
48
controversy promotes what 5 things
high productivity and quality of decision making, creativity, task involvement, positive interpersonal relationships, and psychological health
49
3 benefits of constructive controversy
1. greater recall of reasoning behind positions
2. more transference
3. more generalizing to wider variety of situations
50
is dissent good for groups
increase overall group preformance = deeper understanding of task
51
Can the advocacy of two conflicting but wrong solutions to a problem create a correct one?
yes through qua
52
T:A conflict not only cognitively motivating, but also one in which the resolution of the conflict is likely to be in the direction of correct performance.
qua
53
Presenting immature children with ... that conflicts with their initial position has been found to promote some cognitive growth, although not as much growth as when they receive correct information
erroneous information
54
The value of the controversy process lies not so much in the ... of an opposing position as in the attention and thought processes it induces
correctness (aim for 2)
55
how does controversy promote creativity 2
1. view from Dif perspective
| 2. reformat to new orientation of a solution
56
what aids good argumentation= production
heterogeneity
57
the connection between controversy and ... is so strong
creativity
58
did controversy ever lead the correct position to be dropped for the erroneous one
Change tended to be unidirectional and nonreversible. Children who understood conservation did not adopt erroneous strategies
59
controversy compared with individualistic efforts on the four components of moral development ...4
higher levels of moral motivation, moral judgment, and moral character, as well as the more frequent mastery of a number of ethical skills.
60
T: refers to the quality and quantity of the physical and psychological energy that individuals invest in their efforts to achieve.
task involvement
61
which decision making group likes the task most
controversy
62
why does controversy lead to more task involvement
commitment to problem
| stimulation and enjoyment of process
63
controversy also improves motivation to improve...
understanding
64
how does contoroversy influence attitude change on the issue
more
65
tabel 8.4
///
66
Within controversy and debate there are elements of disagreement, argumentation, and rebuttal that can result in individuals disliking one another and can create difficulties in establishing good relationships
f greater liking
67
how did controversy influence social support
promote more task and personal support (debate more than individual)
68
controversy tends to result in such aspects of psychological health as higher levels of ...3
task-oriented self-esteem, cognitive and moral reasoning, and perspective-taking accuracy. (then debate)
69
perspective taking: Increased understanding of opposing perspectives tends to result from engaging in controversy only if high achieving group member
f whether one is a high-, medium-, or low-achieving group member
70
why is perspective taking good for a group
enhance individuals’ ability to discover beneficial agreements in conflicts
2 when group members make comments that transform, extend, or summarize the reasoning of another person, more effective moral discussions tend to occur
71
what is openmindedness in controversy hindered by
competitiveness (the increased understanding resulting from controversy tended to be ignored in favor of a defensive adherence to one’s own position)
72
does controversy have good outcomes in all conditions
no
73
4 elements that make or break controversy
context within which the controversy takes place, the heterogeneity of participants, the distribution of information among group members, the level of group members’ social skills, and group members’ ability to engage in rational argument
74
There are two possible contexts for controversy: ...
cooperative and competitive.
75
what were the results of competitive vs cooperative controversy
competitive avoided it promoted close mindedness
| cooperative reaching more integrated positions with synthesized info
76
what social skills are required for effective controversy
most important skills is disagreeing with another person’s ideas while confirming the person’s competence
2. perspective taking
3. bringing out differences in positions mdi integration (cycle through many times)
4. rationale argument
77
5 elements facilitating constructive controversy
cooperative context
2. heterogeneous participants
3. relevant info distributed among part (more info the better)
4. social skills
5. rational argument
78
through the use of constructive controversy, group members engage in ...
inquiry-based advocacy
79
T: is presenting a position and providing reasons why others should adopt it
advocacy
80
T: is investigating an issue to establish the best answer or course of action; it involves asking questions and seeking to learn the necessary facts to answer the questions
inquiry
81
... people do not inquire
Disinterested
82
T: is two or more parties presenting opposing positions to investigate an issue and establish the underlying facts and logic needed to reach a reasoned judgment about the most desirable course of action.
inquiry based advocacy
83
do members who are in the minority ever influence the majority?
yes!
84
T: occurs when group members who are in the opinion minority persuade members in the opinion majority to change their opinion and agree with the minority
minority influence
85
2 reasons its hard to have minority influence
1. exert little social and normative pressure
| 2. opinions expressed rarely have other people on board which contributes to people thinking its valid
86
minatory members should be rigid in their views so majority is influenced by them
f be willing to compromise but hold steady in views = consistent
87
how are majority and minority influences different
Majorities induce compliance, especially public compliance. Minorities induce a conversion process.
88
Majority members start with the assumption that the minority is not correct how is this changed
persistence suggests a complexity that stimulates a reappraisal of the situation, divergent thinking, the consideration of multiple perspectives, and a consideration of multiple sources of information and ways of thinking about the issue Over time, this reevaluation may lead people to shift their opinions
89
T: that there is message processing only in a minority.
conversion theory
90
3 steps of ensuring constructive controversy
propose several courses of action
2. form advocacy teams 3engage in controversy
4 implement decision
91
6 steps in the controversy procedure
1. advocacy teams researches position
2. presents
3. open discussion
4. reverse poles
5. synthesis
6. review process
92
what political system: He further believed that knowledge—not the social rank within which a person was born—is the basis of influence within society (need discussion)
democracy
93
T: For individuals to be good citizens, they need to learn how to engage in collective decision making about community and societal issues
political discourse
94
political education in U.S. schools is insufficient why
Students need to be educated for a “culture of argument”
95
The combination of ... and ... has been used to teach elementary and secondary students in Armenia how to be citizens in a democracy
cooperative learning and constructive controversy
96
... typically involves considering possible alternatives and choosing one
Decision making
97
Within decision-making groups, conflict takes the form of ...
controversy.
98
Controversies tend to be constructive when the ...5
situational context is cooperative, when there is some heterogeneity among group members, when information and expertise are distributed within the group, when members have the necessary conflict skills, and if the canons of rational argumentation are followed
99
An essential aspect of controversy is the ..that is derived from the collision of adverse opinions.
creativity
100
test your understanding
p 353
101
what is the myth of creativity
Creativity tends to be social, interpersonal, not individual.
102
what is creativity
is the process of bringing something new into existence
103
7 overlapping phases of the creative process ?
1. right level of motivation to work at a problem (intrinsic)
2. gather knowledge and resources
3. set cooperative context to reduce defensiveness (solution emerges)
4. Challenge and dispute
5. seek different perspectives to refine solution
6. time to reflect= tension and frustration w not producing good solution
7. formulate solution and implement in real world
104
Creative insight usually depends on ...2
(a) the availability of diverse information and viewpoints and (b) group members disagreeing and challenging one another’s reasoning and perspectives
105
Creative insight often is accompanied by... of illumination and excitement and leads to the formulation of a tentative solution.
intense emotional experiences
106
The combination of ...2 motivation tends to generate the most perspective taking
intrinsic and prosocial
107
After all sides of a controversy have been presented, group members should be allowed to think about solutions for a day or so before trying to put things together in new and varied patterns. what stage of creative process
6
108
How do you increase group members’ creative thinking?4
1. establish cooperative context
2. promote conflict
3. set aside time to reflect & encourage persistence
4. take time to come to final decision
109
They suggest four learnable methods of generating novel ideas: ..4
part changing, using a checkerboard figure, using a checklist, and finding something similar.
110
T: involves group members in identifying the parts or attributes of something that might be changed.
part changing method
111
T making a checkerboard figure with spaces for entering words or phrases on the vertical and horizontal axes
checkerboard method
112
T: involves developing and using checklists to make sure that something is not left out or forgotten.
checklist method
113
T: encouraging group members to come up with new ideas by thinking of other persons, animals, or social units in the world that perform the same acts the group wants to perform
find something similar method
114
go over examples of these
p360
115
three interrelated techniques for making the strange appear familiar and the familiar strangeT
synectics
116
what are the three interrelated techniques for making the strange appear familiar and the familiar strange
personal analogy
direct analogy
compressed conflict
117
T: in which individuals imagine how it feels to be part of the phenomenon being studied.
personal analogy
118
T in which group members are asked to think about a parallel situation to gain insight into what they are studying.
direct analogy
119
Asking them how they would feel if they were an incomplete sentence or if they were Paul Revere’s horse are examples.
personal analogy
120
Asking them to give examples of repulsive attraction or cooperative competition are illustrations.
compressed conflict
121
T Asking them to describe how a book is like a lightbulb or how a beaver chewing on a log resembles a typewriter are examples.
direct analogy
122
T in which group members are forced to perceive an object or concept from two frames of reference.
compressed conflict
123
A key element of creative problem solving is having the ... to view the problem from diverse perspectives
open-mindedness
124
what is open mindedness
they are willing to attend to, comprehend, and gain insight into information, ideas, perspectives, assumptions, beliefs, conclusions, and opinions different from their own.
125
is an important requirement for creative problem solving.T
open-mindedness
126
T is a relatively closed organization of beliefs and disbeliefs about reality that is organized around a central set of beliefs about absolute authority, which in turn provides a framework for intolerance toward others.
dogmatism
127
9 things close minded groups are worse at ?
1. less able to learn new beliefs and change old ones
2. integrate new to old = slower problem solving
3. less accepting of belief discrepant info
4. resistant to changing beliefs
5. reject threatening info
6. less recall of info that doesn't agree
7. view confirming evidence more positively
8. accept authority as true and low status as invalid
9. resolve fewer conflicts
128
The replacement of old beliefs with new beliefs is called the ... of the problem-solving process.
analytic phase
129
Once new beliefs have superseded the old ones, group members must organize their new beliefs in a way that leads them to the solution of the problem. This organizational step is called the ... of the problem-solving process.
synthesizing phase
130
The replacement of old beliefs that limit a group’s thinking with new beliefs that enable whole new orientations and perspectives depends on the old beliefs being ...2
challenged and disconfirmed
131
The replacement of old beliefs that limit a group’s thinking with new beliefs that enable whole new orientations and perspectives depends on the old beliefs being ...2
challenged and disconfirmed
132
... depends on developing divergent views that conflict with one another
Problem solving
133
3 things brainstorming facilitates
(a) encourage divergent thinking, (b) produce many different ideas in a short period of time, and (c) ensure the full participation of all group members
134
T: is a procedure in which group members are asked to produce as many, and as uninhibited, ideas as they possibly can and to withhold criticism to optimize creativity
brainstorming
135
any criticism in brainstorming
no! noelval apprehension
136
8 ground rules of brainstorming
Rule out all criticism or evaluation of ideas.
2. expect wild ideas
3. value the quantity of ideas not quality
4. Build on the ideas of other group members when possible
5. focus on single problem or issue
6. Promote a congenial, relaxed, cooperative atmosphere.
7. Make sure that all members, no matter how shy and reluctant to contribute, get their ideas heard.
8. Record all ideas.
137
what's the problems with brainstorming
Most research suggests that it is less effective than allowing the same number of people to generate ideas on their own, independent of any group experience
138
why the lack of effective brainstorming
Production blocking reflects the group norm that only one person is to speak at a given time (still used lots)
139
T: tend to jump around between categories in generating ideas
divergent thinkers (better than convergent)
140
n promoting divergent thinking, what are the 2 critical factors
two critical factors are priming, to make a wide variety of categories accessible, and attention.
141
T: is presenting a brainstormer with ideas from low-accessible categories.
priming
142
are categories that reflect a person’s experiences, whereas ... deal with concepts unrelated to a person’s experiences.
inaccessible categories vs accessible
143
priming categories unlikely to be utilized by someone brainstorming on his or her own increases the group productivity.
t
144
is the probability that an individual group member will use the current speaker’s ideas as the basis for generating his or her next idea
attention
145
Priming by other members is effective only to the extent that group members pay ...
attention to each other’s ideas
146
is there such thing as creative people
There is reason to believe that there is no such thing as a creative person, only creative groups
