Chapter 3 Flashcards
1
Q
.. is the heart of all human interaction, and … is the heart of all small-group efforts.
A
Social interdependence
cooperation
2
Q
what are the 2 steps to setting group goals
A
First, operational goals and the paths to achieving the goals must be clearly specified and measurable. Second, positive interdependence (i.e., cooperation) must be structured among group membersFirst, operational goals and the paths to achieving the goals must be clearly specified and measurable. Second, positive interdependence (i.e., cooperation) must be structured among group members
3
Q
what underlies the 2 steps to becoming an effective group
A
trust
4
Q
what 3 elements make up groups that successfully meet their goals
A
trust, social interdependence and group goals
5
Q
Groups cannot exist unless the activities of their members are directed toward achieving something true or false
A
true
6
Q
Group goals ..6… the behavior of group members
A
direct, channel, guide, energize, motivate, and coordinate
7
Q
It is the power of goals to … members to engage in needed behaviors that makes goals essential to an effective group
A
influence
8
Q
what are the 4 reasons goals are important
A
- goals guide action
- goals motivate behavior
- goals provide the basis for resolving conflicts
- goals are prerequisite for assessment and evaluation
9
Q
what is a goal
A
an ideal, desired place to where people are working. a state of affairs people value
10
Q
what are the 3 ways individuals goals can be socially interdependent
A
Individuals’ goal attainments can be positively related (i.e., cooperation), negatively related (i.e., competition), or independent from one another (i.e., individualistic efforts).
11
Q
what is a group goal
A
is a future state of affairs desired by enough members of a group to motivate them to work toward its achievement.
12
Q
A … is an ideal and unique image of the future.
A
vision
13
Q
Do groups have goals, or are there only the various individual goals of the group’s members?
A
both are possible.
people who say no assert hat group membership is just a way to achieve personal goals
people who say group goals do exist say The success of the group, rather than their personal gain, seems to be the major source of their satisfaction
14
Q
how can group goals outpreform personal goals
A
Group goals provide a unity, a common fate, that cannot readily be identified simply by noting the individual goals of group members. secondly, group goals result in higher group performance, goal acceptance, and cooperation among group members.
15
Q
are group goals just a combination of personal goals?
A
no definitive answer. Perhaps the safest conclusion is both group and individual goals exist, and the group goals are relevant to the individual needs of the members.
16
Q
There are two ways to induce member commitment to the group’s goals. what are they
A
the first is to ensure that the goals meet the START criteria
The second way is to involve group members in the process of forming the goals
17
Q
what is the start criteria
A
To be effective, goals need to be specifically defined (so it is clear what needs to be done step-by-step), trackable (so progress can be measured), challenging but achievable (50 percent chance of success), relevant to members’ interests, and aimed at competencies that will be transferred to other situations
18
Q
are there any other factors influencing commitment?
A
how desirable the goal seems
the ways in which members relate to one another in working toward the accomplishment of the goal
19
Q
what part of start technique does this fall into: Goals must be operationalized so that the steps to achieving the goals are clear and understandable
A
trackable
20
Q
Goals must be challenging enough that the group has a … chance of achieving them
A
50/50
21
Q
Goals must be … if group members are to achieve them
A
clear
22
Q
what are the symptoms of unclear goals
A
high level of group tension, joking or horseplay, distraction by side issues, and the failure to use good ideas
23
Q
what is an operational goal
A
goals for which specific steps to achievement are identifiable (i.e., observable, countable, and specific).
24
Q
what kind of goals dont make it evidnet when it is acheived
A
nonoperational goals
25
several of them are better than one when telling a group what accomplishing the goal looks like t or f
t
26
what are the advantages of operational goals
1. facilitate communication
2. evaluate group process and product
3. help plan and carry out tasks
4. aid in rational conclusions in times of conflict
27
the more time a group spends clarifying and operationalizing its goals, the less time is needed to achieve them. t or f
t
28
clear goals are usually decided upon in advance to group meeting t or f
f
29
what are the 2 types of goals
performance and mastery
30
what are mastery goals
Mastery goals are aimed at becoming more competent on a task or skill.
31
what are performance goals
Performance goals are aimed at demonstrating competence by outperforming others and thereby receiving favorable judgments of ability from others.
32
People who set performance goals are often focused on ...
winning, looking good, and being evaluated well.
33
task oriented vs ego oriented students can be said to focus on which goals
```
task= mastery
ego= performance
```
34
Ego-involved students can become very anxious or discouraged in the face of failure because ...
such failure challenges their self-concept.
35
what are the 2 types of performance goals
performance approach goals (i.e., striving to win) and performance avoidance goals (i.e., striving not to lose).
36
which goals have the worst
performance avoidance goals
37
Group goals reflect the members’ ...
aspirations
38
what is Level of aspiration (LOA)
is the compromise between ideal goals and more realistic expectations
39
does your LOA stay the same throughout task?
no As one gains experience, individuals revise their ideal expectations to match the reality of the situation.
40
groups set goals that are slightly optimistic or pessimistic
optimistic
41
what's the problem with optimistic bias (usually beneficial)
set overoptimistic goals year after year, the continued failure decreased morale, work enjoyment, and group efficiency.
42
Individual goals that are markedly different from the group’s goals may become ...
hidden agendas
43
what are hidden agendas
personal goals that are unknown to other group members and are at cross-purposes with the dominant group goals.
44
5 ways to ensure consensus on group goals?
1. discuss the goals thoroughly = ownership of goals
2. recognize two levels of of operation: toward the achievement of the group’s goals and toward the achievement of individual members’ goals
3. give hidden agendas different amounts of attention
4. don't scold hidden agendas
5. evaluate groups ability to deal with hidden agendas
45
what are the 2 ways of helping groups set effective goals
Two methods of helping groups set effective goals are the survey-feedback method and program evaluation and review method
46
what is the survey feedback method
begins with interviewing group members about group goals and the priorities of the group
47
what happens during an annual survey feedback exchange
During this meeting the group plans its short-term goals, ranks the goals in terms of priority, defines specific responsibilities for working on the tasks, and sets goals for increasing group effectiveness
48
what is the critical path method
groups specify the end state they want to achieve. Working backward from this final goal, the group details what must happen immediately before the goal is achieved and what tasks and subgoals are needed to accomplish the goal
49
3 main perspectives of group theories?
Social interdependence perspective
cognitive- developmental perspective
behavioural- social perspective
50
which perspective focuses on resource and role interdependence
cognitive
51
which perspective focuses on goal interdependence
social interdependence perspective
52
which perspective focuses on reward and task interdependence
behavioural social perspective
53
which two perspectives promote interaction
social and cognitive
54
which perspective focuses on increased motivation
behavioural
55
review figure 3.1
.
56
what are the three general theoretical perspectives that have guided research on cooperation
cognitive-developmental, behavioral, and social interdependence
57
Piaget proposed that when individuals cooperate on the environment, sociocognitive conflict occurs that creates cognitive disequilibrium, which in turn stimulates ....
perspective-taking ability and cognitive development
58
The cognitive-developmental perspective is largely based on the theories of ...
Piaget and Vygotsky.
59
by far the most important theory dealing with cooperation and competition is social...
interdependence theory.
60
what does interdepednace theory focus on
the balance of rewards and costs in social exchange among interdependent individuals
61
the essence of a group is the interdependence among members that results in the group being a ... so that a change in the state of any member or subgroup changes the state of any other member or subgroup.
dynamic whole
62
how are group members made interdependent
through common goals
63
T: exists when the outcomes of individuals are affected by their own and others’ actions
social interdependance
64
2 types of social interdependence
positive (when the actions of individuals promote the achievement of joint goals) and negative (when the actions of individuals obstruct the achievement of each other’s goals)
65
T: exists when the goal achievement of person A is affected by person B’s actions, but the reverse is not true
social dependance
66
exists when the goal achievement of person A is unaffected by person B’s actions and vice versa
social independence
67
T:exists when neither the person nor others can influence goal achievement.
social helplessness
68
the 3 ways interdependence can be structured in a situation are
positive( cooperation) negative (competition) and no interdependence
69
positive interdependence creates the psychological processes of ...
substitutability
70
what is substitutability
the degree to which actions of one person substitute for the actions of another person
71
T:the investment of positive psychological energy in objects outside of oneself, such as friends, family, and work
positive cathexis
72
T: the openness to being influenced by and to influencing others
inducability
73
No interdependence can be characterized by the absence of these three psychological processes.what are they
inducability, positive cathexis and substitutability
74
what does promotive interaction look like
occurs as individuals encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts to accomplish the group’s goals
75
review figure and table 3.2
.
76
what does oppositional interaction look like
occurs as individuals discourage and obstruct one another’s efforts to achieve
77
even during postdetoxification (a period of protracted abstinence) the reward system still bears ... changes
allostatic
78
review figure 5.3
.
79
what is an allosteric state
Allostasis, refers to situa-tions where the set point is not constant but changes in response to changes in the individual’s environment
80
both the acute, positively reinforcing effects of drug use and the negative motivational effects of drug withdrawal are pro-posed to involve increases or decreases in ...5...neurotransmission within the mesolimbic dopamine sys-tem
dopamine, opi-oid, cannabinoid, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate
81
during acute withdrawal, there are increases in ... such as corticotropin-releasing hormone
stress hormones
82
how does drug use influence prefrontal functions :
neuroadaptations have rendered the prefrontal cortex hypofunctional, which promotes a disinhibition of activity in subcortical structures that drive addiction
83
what are the 3 stages of addiction according to hedonic
binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation
84
sensi-tization contributes to the development of addiction only during the early stages when it stimulates drug intake why is that
sensitization is eventually overcome by the processes of hedonic dysregulation, the term used to describe the lowering of the mood set point
85
this dysphoria can be thought of as a psychological with-drawal syndrome that can be alleviated only by taking more drug- what theory does this support
dependance theory
86
The concept of ...permits hedonic dysregulation theory to explain relapse long after the withdrawal symptoms created by homeostatic mechanisms have disappeared.
allostasis
87
all drugs of abuse activate the ..., which plays a pivotal role in drug addiction
mesolimbic dopamine system(surge of dopamine in nucleus accumbans)
88
They propose that drug addiction involves a dysfunction in information processing and integration among multiple brain regions that comprise four interrelated circuits. what are the 4
reward/ salience
motivation and drive
memory and conditioning
inhibitory control and executive function (all these circuits are connected
89
These circuits regulate ... (e.g., nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area), ... (e.g., orbitofrontal cortex and motor cortex), ... (e.g., amygdala and hippocampus), and i... (e.g., dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate
reward/saliency
motivation/drive
memory/conditioning
nhibitory control/executive function
90
One neuroadaptation associated with long-term drug
| use is a decrease in dopamine function how does this present
less D2 receptors
91
how does addiction influence the prefrontal cortex?
Addicts show deficits in metabolic activity and/or gray matter volume in a number of cortical areas
92
chronic drug use evokes a transition in brain activity from prefrontal cortical to striatal control over ..., as well as a shift in activity from the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) to the ... (caudate and putamen)
drug-seeking and drug-taking behavior
| dorsal striatum
93
how can we explain the loss of incentive salience for natural rewards
Under baseline conditions (in the absence of drug and drug-associated cues), lack of pre-frontal cortical activity and, subsequently, of glutamatergic stimulation of the nucleus accumbens
94
in what way is the prefrontal cortex of addicted brain actually hyperactive
the hypoactive prefrontal cortex is super-sensitive to drug-associated stimuli.= motivation for drug
95
Normally, activation of these circuits would be kept in check by the prefrontal cortex. However, what happens with drug
a dysfunctional prefrontal cortex cannot properly regulate dopamine neu-ron activity, and, therefore, the motivational/drive and memory/conditioning circuits are left uninhibited, result-ing in compulsive drug intake
96
why is so hard for adits to admit they have a problem
this denial may actually be the product of dys-functional cortical circuits that mediate insight and self-awareness.
97
review 10 principles of drug addiction treatment p.114
/
98
is there a single treatment that works for everyone
no
99
drug treatment should focus solely on addiction
Effective treatment attends to multiple needs of the individual, not just his or her drug abuse.
100
Research indicates that most addicted individu-als need at least ... in treatment to significantly reduce or stop their drug use and that the best outcomes occur with longer durations of treatment.
3 months
101
what is the most common addiction therapy
Behavioral therapies—including individual, family,
| or group counseling
102
Medications are an important element of treatment
t
103
Many drug-addicted individuals also have other
| mental disorders.
t
104
detoxification alone is sufficient to help addicted individuals achieve long-term abstinence.
f
105
Treatment does not need to be voluntary to be effec-tive
t
106
a users actions should be monitored for effective treatment
t
107
HOW DOES detoxification and medicaLLy managed WithdraWaL WORK
Detoxification is gener-ally considered a precursor to or a first stage of treatment as it does not address the psychological, social, and behav-ioral problems associated with addiction and therefore does not typically produce lasting behavioral changes nec-essary for recovery
108
what treatment program works best for those with jobs
outpatient treatment costs less than residential treatment and often is more suitable for people with jobs or exten-sive social supports. promotes drug free lifestyples
109
Short-term residential programs provide intensive but relatively brief treatment based on a modified 12-step approach how long
3-6weeks
110
The best-known long-term residential treatment model is the ... (TC), which provides 24-hour a day care with planned lengths of stay between 6 and 12 months.
thera-peutic community
111
TCs focus on the ... of the individual.
resocialization
112
what kind of therapy? are designed to engage people in treatment, provide incentives for them to remain abstinent, modify their attitudes and behaviors related to drug use, and increase their life skills to handle stressful circum-stances and environmental cues that may trigger intense craving for drugs and relapse.
Behavioral therapies
113
what kind of treatment: Individuals learn to identify and correct problematic behaviors through techniques intended to enhance self-control by exploring the positive and nega-tive consequences of continued use, self-monitoring to recognize drug cravings early on and to identify high-risk situations for use, and developing strategies for coping with and avoiding high-risk situations and the desire to use.
CBT focuses on coping strategies
114
which treatment? are based on operant conditioning principles of reinforcing drug-free urine samples with low-cost incentives such as prizes or vouchers exchangeable for food items, movie passes, and other personal goods
Contingency manage-ment interventions
115
what kind?Motivational interviewing principles are used to strengthen motivation to stop drug use and build a plan for change
motiVationaL enhancement theraPy (met)
116
what kind? such as those of Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcot-ics Anonymous, and Cocaine Anonymous are some of the most well-known behavioral treatments for addiction
Twelve-step pro-grams,
117
Three key aspects predominate 12 step programs
acceptance
surrender
active involvement
118
should adolescences treatment be the same as adult
nofamily involvement is very important
119
what kind? for adolescents is an outpatient approach that views adolescent drug use in terms of a network of influences (individual, family, peer, and community).
Multidi-mensional Family Therapy (MDFT)
120
...what kind? targets family interactions that are thought to maintain or exacerbate adolescent drug abuse and other co-occurring problem behaviors such as oppositional behavior, delinquency, associating with antisocial peers, aggressive and vio-lent behavior, and risky sexual behavior
Brief Strategic Family Therapy (BSFT)
121
what kind? addresses the factors associated with serious antisocial behavior of adolescents who abuse drugs.
Multisystemic Therapy (MST)
122
2 main subgroups of pharmacological treatments?
medications that reduce the aversive (withdrawal) effects of drug cessation or reduce drug reward, craving, and the likelihood of relapse
123
what are substation or replacement therapies
treats withdrawal by The drug of abuse could be replaced with a gradually decreasing dose of a pharmacologically similar, longer-acting medica-tion until the individual was drug free
124
Unfortunately, ... is the only treatment received by the majority of addicts
detoxification
125
what kind of drugs act on reducing drug reward
These drugs may be full agonists, such as the nicotine patch or methadone, which activate the same neurotransmitter receptors as the drug of abuse
126
if drugs enter the brain more slowly; fail to produce the fast, high surge of nucleus accumbens dopa-mine; do they loose their reinforcing effects
yes
127
how is it productive to just administer the drug or one like it to prevent drug craving
Stable levels of the medication are maintained within the brain so that the user does not experience the
fluctuations of a high followed by a crash and produces cross tolerance
128
The ultimate
| goal of addiction pharmacotherapy is to develop a medication capable of ...
preventing or reversing the pathological neuroadaptations that result from chronic drug use.
129
what are biologic treatments
Approaches include using vaccines that stimulate the immune system to produce drug antibodies, monoclonal antibodies that bind to a drug of abuse eliminating the need for an immune system response, and genetically modified enzymes that accelerate the metabolism of abused drugs
130
how could vaccines prevent a high
Vaccines are developed by chemically bonding a minute amount of drug to a protein against which the immune system builds antibodies antibodies latch on to the drug molecules forming a complex that is too large to pass through the blood–brain barrier
131
what are the 9 types of positive interdependence
```
positive goal interdependence
positive celebration/ reward interdepedance
positive resource interdependence
positive role interdependence
positive identity interdependence
environmental independence
positive fantasy interdependence
positive task interdependence
positive outside enemy interdependence
```
132
The group establishes a mutual identity through a name, flag, motto, or song.:T
positive identity interdependence
133
s putting people in a specific area in which to work. is what type of interdependence
enviro
134
what is Positive Fantasy Interdependence
A task is given that requires members to imagine that they are in a life-or-death situation and must collaborate in order to survive.
135
The numerous variables that are affected by cooperation can be subsumed within three broad and interrelated outcomes
(a) effort exerted to achieve, (b) quality of relationships among participants, and (c) participants’ psychological adjustment.
136
what is a meta analysis
is a method of statistically combining the results of a set of independent studies that test the same hypothesis and using inferential statistics to draw conclusions about the overall result of the studies.
137
The essential purpose of a meta-analysis is to summarize a set of related research studies, so that the ... on the dependent variable is known.
size of the effect of the independent variable
138
what is one of the largest bodies of research in psychology
social interdepedance theory:The study of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts is commonly recognized as the oldest field of research
139
The many diverse dependent variables examined in studies on social interdependence over the past 110 years can be subsumed within three broad categories
effort to achieve, positive interpersonal relationships, and psychological health.
140
how does cooperation compare to competitive or individualistic efforts
2 thirds better achievement. also better attraction, self esteem and social support
141
what is process gain
occurs when new ideas, solutions, or efforts are generated through groups that are not generated when persons work individually.
142
cooperations spend more time on a task
t
143
the pay of all members depended on the productivity of the group as a whole how does this influence productivity
work doubled the efficiency of the workers, increased their pay about 25%, and reduced their costs substantially compared to the flat rate previously paid to each individual.
144
what's the difference between process loss vs gain
Process loss occurs when fewer ideas, fewer solutions, and less effort on a learning or problem-solving task are generated within groups than by persons working individualistically
145
groups produce greater group-to-individual transfer than individual-to-individual transfer what does this mean
individuals perform higher on individual measures of achievement after learning in cooperative groups than after learning alone
146
caring and committed relationships are a luxury
f are necessity
147
what is social judgement theory
The social judgments that individuals make about each other result in either a process of acceptance, resulting in mutual liking and respect, or a process of rejection, resulting in mutual dislike and lack of respect.
148
which theory focuses on relationships among diverse individuals
social judgement theory
149
The processes of acceptance and rejection are self-perpetuating what does this mean
Any part of the process tends to elicit all the other parts of the process.
150
Any part of the process tends to elicit all the other parts of the process.:T
group cohesion
151
doing well on a task tends to increase group cohesiveness
t
152
is there a link between productivity and cohesivness
yes more cohesive is more productive
153
An important question is whether the relationships formed within cooperative groups will continue voluntarily in subsequent nontask situations
the relationships formed within cooperative groups among heterogeneous peers do seem to generalize to post-task situations.
154
Another question is whether the quality of interpersonal relationships among students is related to academic achievement.
if teachers want to increase early adolescents’ achievement, they should facilitate the development of friendships
155
cooperative predispositions predicted the engagement in ... and the absence of engaging in harm-intended aggression
prosocial behavior
156
... is the ability to develop, maintain, and appropriately modify interdependent relationships with others to succeed in achieving goals
Psychological health
157
cooperativeness is positively related to emotional maturity, well-adjusted social relations, strong personal identity, ability to cope with adversity, social competencies, basic trust and optimism about people, self-confidence, independence and autonomy, higher self-esteem, and increased ...skills
perspective-taking skills
158
what are perspective-taking skills
the ability to understand how a situation appears to other people
159
how does competitiveness relate to psychological health
Competitiveness was in some cases positively and in some cases negatively related to psychological health
160
cooperation promotes self esteem
t
161
whereas competitive and individualistic experiences tend to promote ...(being unaware of perspectives other than your own
egocentrism
162
One of the most important sets of social competencies involves ...
managing conflicts
163
both positive and negative interdependence create conflicts among individuals
t
164
what are 2 conflict resolution programs used in schools
(a) the Teaching Students to Be Peacemakers program, in which students are taught how to resolve conflicts of interest constructively by engaging in integrative negotiations and peer mediation (Johnson & Johnson, 2005b) and (b) the Academic Controversy program, in which students are taught how to challenge intellectually each other’s ideas, reasoning, and conclusions
165
The higher the level of an individual’s ... (e.g., depression, anger, anxiety), the less able he or she is to develop and maintain caring and committed relationships.
psychological pathology
166
it is through ... that many of the attitudes and values essential to psychological health (such as self-efficacy) are learned and adopted.
cooperative efforts
167
Ethics, morals, and character are inherently ...
social.
168
what are the 3 ways we learn ethics
One is direct: professors tell students what the students’ professional ethics should be. Another is inspirational by authority figures’ exemplary modeling of ethics.
a process approach in which the group experience is structured so that members engage in ethical behavior moment-to-moment. (most effective)
169
Two of the most powerful tools groups have for teaching members ethics and moral values are ...
cooperation and constructive controversy.
170
it is adaptive to have one’s self-interests thereby include the interests of others and the community as a whole
t
171
The ... region of the brain is involved in pain sensation and in defensive behavior.
Periaqueductal Gray (PaG)
172
Stimulation of the PAG causes an imme-diate loss of pain sensation (that is, analgesia). This is because ...
the PAG is rich in receptor sites for opioid drugs (e.g., morphine) and their endogenous counterparts, endorphins and enkephalins
173
where do the PAG neurons send signal>
to raphe nuclei of the hindbrain which, in turn, project downward to release serotonin in the spi-nal cord, indirectly stimulating further release of endor-phins in the spinal cord to inhibit pain
174
Also located in the PAG is a system that has been
| described as a “...” system
punishment
175
The PAG also receives input from a limbic structure called the ..., a center that mediates fear and fear conditioning.
amygdala
176
what are 2 highly connected motor areas
substantia nigra and basal ganglia
177
what causes Parkinson's disease
Degeneration of sub-stantia nigra dopamine cells is associated with Parkinson’s disease. (malfunction of the basal ganglia)
178
figure 4.9
.
179
what does the
| ventral teGMental area (vta) do
component of reward circuit dopamine production sent to other areas also GABA production
180
stimulation of the medial fore-brain bundle projection that runs between the ... and... is associated with pleasure and has been implicated in drug euphoria and addiction, as well as in schizophrenia
VTA and the nucleus accumbens
181
which structures are in the forebrain
basal ganglia
182
structures in the midbrain?
Reticular formation
PAG
substantia nigra
VTA
183
what do basal ganglia do
voluntary movement, classical conditioning and memory for locations
184
how many nuclei does basal ganglia have
many
185
The ... is the largest component of the basal ganglia and is the major input center for information from the cortex and thala-mus.
striatum
186
??The striatum can be subdivided as follows: the dor-sal striatum includes the caudate nucleus and the putamen (together, referred to as the neostriatum), along with the fundus which links them; the ventral striatum includes the olfactory tubercule and the nucleus accumbens, which you recall is part of the medial forebrain bundle—the brain’s pleasure pathway.
/
187
Projections from the striatum are sent to the ... which is the output side of the basal ganglia
globus pallidus (or pallidum)
188
The globus pallidus projects to an additional component of the basal ganglia called the ... nucleus, and also sends projections back via the thalamus to a motor area of the cortex
subthalamic
189
what 3 things make up the motor loop
basal ganglia, thalamus and cortex
190
is substantia nigra in the basal ganglia
sometimes considered apart of the structure
191
why do Parkinson's take L dopa not dopamine
can pass through blood brain barrier
192
what would be a side effect of antipsychotic drugs that block l dopa
pseudopar-kinsonism—symptoms that resemble Parkinson’s disease
193
The system that connects the motor cortex to the muscles is called the ...
pyramidal motor system
194
the system involv-ing the basal ganglia and substantia nigra is called the ...
extrapyramidal motor system.
195
what are the parts of the limbic system?
thalamus, hippocampus, mammillary bodies, and cingulate gyrus (the insular cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, subcallosal gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus olfactory bulb, amygdala, septal nuclei, and fornix)
196
the ventral tegmental area, which is a midbrain structure, may also be considered part of the limbic system ...why
due to their intricate connections and extensive communication with other limbic structures.
197
placement and job of hippocampus
The hippocampus is a large limbic structure located beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe
learning and memory
198
what happens if you remove hippocampus
amnesia and an inability to form new declarative memories. no spatial memory
199
what does stress do to hippo
shrinks it
200
do drugs interact with hip
yes may be apart of state dependant learning and association of place and drug
201
function of amygdala
the processing of emotions, especially negative emotions such as fear and rage; in the formation of emotional memory; and in behav-ioral reactivity, especially aggression
202
what disorder causes lots of Amy activity
PTSD (destruction causes calm placid state
203
review figure 4 10
.
204
location and job of thalamus
centre of brain
| relay center, transmitting information from sensory organs to where it needs to be processed
205
job and position of hypothalamus
tiny with lots of nuclei
primary recipient of information flowing from the limbic system regulates body temperature, blood pressure, fluid balance, and concentrations of glu-cose and sodium
206
how are the forebrain structures functions similar
they are all concerned with maintain-ing homeostasis, or functional balance, in the body
207
what It governs instinctual behavior and emotions.
hypothalamus
208
does the hypothalamus deal with hormones
yes sometimes releases hormones directly
209
2 routes hypothalamus uses?
to medulla
| to pituitary
210
what in the medulla that hypothalamus signals want to get to
descending reticular formation wherein control centers for the autonomic nervous system are located.(can control control heart and breathing rates, digestion, perspiration, vasoconstrictionect)
211
2 routes from the hypo to the pituitary
tuberoinfundibular tract or the hypothalamo-hypophysial tract
or the hypophyseal portal system
212
how does hypo communicate with pit thorough portal
control the pituitary gland in a more indirect way, secreting hormones (called releasing factors or releasing hormones) into a set of blood vessels that connect the hypothalamus and the anterior (front) portion of the pituitary. stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete its own hormones, such as ACTH or luteinizing hormone, into the bloodstream.
213
lesion that what area causes excessive drinking and eating
hypothalamus
214
They have also been called pleasure centers because humans sometimes report experiencing pleasure when these areas of the brain are stimulated electrically what are they actually
motivation centers
215
The benzodiaz-epines enhance ... and this increased inhibition in the limbic system may be one mechanism reduce aggression in nonhumans and produce a calming effect
the inhibitory effects of GABA
216
how thick is cortex covering the brain ...
3 mm
217
what does cortex relationship with sensory info
integration of sensory info
218
Information from sense organs is projected to different parts of the cortex. what are these areas called
somatosensory, auditory, visual
219
The ... cortex is the principal area responsi-ble for commanding voluntary motor actions
primary motor
220
where is primary motor located
frontal loves
221
Cell bodies residing in the primary motor cortex send their axons down through the midbrain and pons, into the lower portion of the medulla where they cross over to the contralateral (opposite) side of the body and enter the spi-nal cord. what does crossover mean
Because of the crossover in the lower medulla, neurons originating in the left side of the motor cortex initiate movement on the right side of body and vice versa
222
Motor commands are anticipated and planned outside of the primary motor cortex, in ...
asso-ciation motor areas.
223
While sensory and motor functions are handled mainly by central and posterior parts of the cortex where are higher mental processes governed
mental processes of thought and cognition are governed mostly in rostral areas of the brain
224
All of the cortex that sits rostral to the primary motor cortex and its adjacent association motor areas in the frontal lobe is referred to as the ...
prefrontal cor-tex.
225
where does prefrontal recieve info from
prefrontal
226
what part of brain deals with reinforcers
prefrontal
227
which disorder effects the prefrontal cortex
alz
228
...2 (limbic structures) mediate attention; response competition and selection; suppression of prepotent response tendencies; conditioned drug seeking; and craving, learning, and memory.
The cingulate cortex and entorhinal cortex
229
review figure 4 11
.
230
Drugs that cause such malformations are called ....
teratogens
231
2 REASONS BEHAVIOUR ALTERING DRUGS ARE ESPECIALLY POTENT TETROGENS ?
in order to be behaviorally active, drugs must readily penetrate the brain. This prop-erty also gives these drugs easy access across the placenta to the body of the developing fetus. Second, drugs that act to alter the functioning of neurotransmitters are particu-larly dangerous because of the way the nervous system develops.
232
when do baby neurons form
form during the first 12 weeks after conception, at a rate of 150,000 cells per minute!
233
Nerve cells develop in babies in the part of the brain that they are destined to occupy during adulthood.
f have to migrate
234
The formation, differentiation, and migration of cells;
| the projection of axons; and the formation of synapses are all under ....
chemical control. = very susceptible to drug disruption in brain development
235
disruptions may appear mild and be detectable only with careful system-atic observation of an individual’s behavior :T
functional or behavioural teratology
236
Functional distur-bances may include from drugs during pregnancy ?
learning disability, deficits in executive functioning (decision-making, planning, prob-lem-solving, and memory), and communication and social difficulties.
237
are all chemicals that act in the brain NT?
no
238
4 criteria to be an NT?
(a) the sub-stance is synthesized within the neuron by coexisting enzymes, (b) the substance is released in response to cell depolarization, (c) the substance binds to receptors to alter the postsynaptic cell, and (d) the substance is removed or deactivated by some mechanism within the synaptic cleft
239
how many NT found
50
240
Most neurotransmitter substances are .... which are stored in synaptic vesicles and released from the terminal button in response to an action potentia
small molecule
| neurotransmitters
241
These neurotransmitters are synthesized from precursors under the guidance of ... created in the neuron’s cell body and then transported to the axon terminal. Small molecule neurotransmitters act principally in their .... to stimulate ionotropic or metabo-tropic receptors in a rapid, brief manner.
enzymes
| release zone
242
Dif types of NT?
small molecule NT
| large molecule NT
243
what make up large molecule NT
comprised of short chains of amino acids
244
figure 4.12
?
245
what cleave (chop) the larger amino acid chain into its smaller neuropeptide forms.
enzymes
246
When released, many neuropeptides act as ..., diffusing away from their release zone and almost always binding to metabotropic receptors to produce slow, long-lasting effects
.neuromodulators
247
how does the reuptake of neuropeptides and small NT differ
Neuropeptides are degraded in the synaptic cleft by enzymes and do not undergo reuptake into the terminal button, as small molecule neurotrans-mitters do.
248
For years, many of the neuroactive peptides have been
| known as ...
hormones
249
what is a hormones
a chemical messenger released into the bloodstream by a gland or by endocrine cells of some organs
250
can a body use a peptide as both a NT and a hormone
yes
251
difference between hormones and NT?
Whereas neurotransmitters carry messages over very short distances, a hormone circulates throughout the body and has an effect on some biological process distant from the place where it is released.
252
NT or hormone? be released near a brain structure and may exert effects on many synapses simultaneously
These substances are acting more as a hormone than a transmitter and are sometimes called neurohormones when they act in this capacity
253
best understood NT?
acetylcholine (ACh), which is a small molecule neurotransmitter
254
Another family of small molecule neurotransmitters, called ...., is composed of: the catecholamines, which include dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine (E); the indolamine serotonin, which is often called 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT); and the imidazolamine histamine (H)
biogenic amines or monoamines
255
can an amino acid be a small NT?
yes
256
4 most common amino acid NT?
glutamate
aspartame
GABA
glycine (also serve metabolic and biological functions)
257
The large molecule neuropeptides include the ..., which are morphine-like molecules such as beta-endor-phin, enkephalins, dynorphins, endomorphins, and nociceptin.
opioid pep-tides
258
every neuron pro-duced a single neurotransmitter and released that same substance at every one of its synapses:T
dales law
259
why is dales law proven false
many neurons produce and release more than one substance from their synapses, usually a small molecule neurotransmitter and a neuropeptide
260
how do we classify neurons
off of the primary NT they release
261
NT that release acetylcholine are called ... neurons.
cholinergic (Those that use dopamine are dopaminergic, those that use serotonin are serotonergic, and so on.)
262
does each neuron usually have the same effect
no depends on receptor site it binds to
263
a substance released from a neuron into the synaptic cleft can be either ... or ... and ... or ...
an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator
264
do we need to know table 4.1
.
265
where do drugs have their effect
neurotransmitter synthesis, release, action, and deactivation.
266
—they are drug actions that facilitate either excitatory or inhibitory cell communication of a par-ticular neurotransmitter.:T
agonistic
267
they are drug actions that impede either excitatory or inhibitory cell communication by a particular neurotransmitter.
:T
antagonistic
268
When an externally administered drug binds to and activates a receptor, mim-icking the effects of a neurotransmitter, it is referred to as a ....
direct agonist
269
When a drug increases or facilitates the effect of a neurotransmitter, but does not mimic its action, it is called an ...
indirect agonist.
270
what is non-competitive binding
binds to sites but does not prevent main NT from binding
271
T: receptor attraction and holding tenacity
binding affinity
272
what is a partial agonist
A drug that has a high binding affinity (that is, receptor attraction and holding tenacity) for a particular receptor but that activates that receptor only weakly, to a lesser degree than would its natural ligand (neurotransmitter), is referred to as a partial agonist
273
A mixed agonist–antagonist is a drug that ...
acts as an agonist at one receptor subtype while acting as an antag-onist at another receptor subtype.
274
figure 4;13
!
275
how can you tell facilitating inhibitory over impeding excitatory ?
??
276
receptor blockers, direct antagonists, or competitive antagonists is the same name for what function
bind to receptor sites but do not activate them at all, instead preventing the neurotransmitter from binding and exerting its effect.
277
the drug produces an effect opposite that of the neurotransmitter. what kind of drug action
antagonistic or inverse agonists
278
naloxone facilitators (agonists) of an opposite (inverse) response is what kind of drug
inverse agonist
279
what do Indirect antagonists
binding site on a
| receptor complex and interfere with neurotransmission, but without blocking the binding site for the neurotransmitter.
280
When drugs act as receptor blockers, binding will decrease neurotransmis-sion to what 2 areas
to the postsynaptic cell as well as activity in the auto-receptor.
281
what is the effect When drugs act as receptor blockers, binding will decrease neurotransmis-sion to the postsynaptic cell as well as activity in the auto-receptor. This decrease in autoreceptor activity stimulates the cell to produce more neurotransmitter to compensate for the decreased activity at the postsynaptic site
thus can-celing the effect of the receptor blocker on the postsynaptic cell.
282
need to know table 4.2
?
283
what combines to make Ach
It is synthesized in cholinergic cells by com-bining acetate and choline with the help of the enzyme cho-line acetyltransferase.
284
ACh molecules that leak from
presynaptic storage vesicles and those released into the synaptic cleft in response to an action potential are quickly ...
degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
285
what happens to the rest of Ach
choline molecule is taken back into the presynaptic cell by choline receptor transporter proteins located in the mem-brane of the axon terminal.
286
There are two major systems of cholinergic neurons
| that project through the brain
from mesopontine tegmentum area
| or from basal forebrain area
287
review 4.14
.
288
4 major NT system?
Ach
seretonin
dopamine
nonepinepherine
289
Within the basal forebrain complex sit two
| structures called the basal nucleus of Meynert and the medial septal nuclei what do their axons release
Ach
290
what system plays a large role on memory and learning
cholinergic system
291
what disease has a loss of Achievement neaurotransmition
ALz
292
what are the 2 major ACH systems
basal nucleus of Meynert and the medial septal nuclei in basal forebrain complex
in a part of the pons called the mesopontine tegmentum area
293
does the mesopontine tegmentum area play a role in sleep
yes REM
294
recep-tors for ACh are also found in the ventral tegmental area, which you’ll recall is a vital component of the brain’s ...
reward system.
295
how does aCH relate to drug abuse
reward and diccitve properties of drugs
296
can ACH reeptor sites be influenced by other substances
yes
297
Nicotinic cholinergic receptors are iono-tropic. When stimulated, the ion channel opens to allow influx of Na+ ions and efflux of K+ ions, producing EPSPs. They are stimulated by nicotine (a direct agonist) and inhib-ited by a drug called curare (a receptor blocker). what does curare do
paralyses muscles= dead
nicotinic receptors are also present at neuromuscu-lar junctions, where terminal buttons of motor neurons syn-apse with muscle fibers in the PNS
298
how does botox work
blocks ACH at muscular junctions preventing muscles from contracting
299
Muscarinic cholinergic receptors are classified into five different subtypes (M1–5), based on their ...
pharmacological activity
300
what happens when Ach binds to Muscarinic cholinergic receptors
metatropic action
| acti-vates second messenger systems to open K+ and Cl–ion channels and hyperpoloarize the cell.
301
In the PNS, muscarinic recep-tors are involved in the functioning of the ...
autonomic ner-vous system
302
The catecholamines—DA, NE, and E—and the indolamine 5-HT are all monoamines, meaning ...
they are synthesized from a single amino acid.
303
In the case of the catecholamines, the amino acid precursor is .., which is not only pro-duced by the body but also consumed in foods.
tyrosine
304
Tyrosine hydroxylase is referred to as a rate-limiting enzyme, meaning ...
that the amount of catecholamine synthesized depends on the availability of that enzyme.
305
When axon terminal neu-rotransmitter levels rise significantly, tyrosine hydroxylase is inhibited; when the neuron is firing at a high rate and neurotransmitter is being released quickly, tyrosine hydrox-ylase is facilitated
are these not saying the same thing?
306
review figure 4.15
.
307
The synaptic vesicles of noradrenergic neurons
| contain an enzyme that dopaminergic neurons do not; this enzyme is called dopamine beta-hydroxylase and it converts ...
DA into NE.
308
reread 4.5.3 monoamines
pls
309
Dopaminergic neurons form four major systems in the brain. how does it act in all 4
```
tuberoinfundibular pathway (dopamine acts as a neu-rohormone)
3 others acts as an NT
```
310
nigrostriatal pathway, dopamine cell bodies in the substantia nigra of the midbrain project their axons to the dorsal striatum how can you tell this from the name
The location of dopamine cell bod-ies is indicated by the first part of the pathway’s name, and the location of axon terminals is indicated by the second part.
311
what are the 4 dopamine pathways
nigrostriatal pathway
tuberoinfundibular pathway
mesocortical pathway
mesolimbic pathway
312
nigrostriatal pathway does what
(degeneration of feels here = Parkinson's)plays an important role in the control of motor movement,
313
where are meso dopamine systems located
in Ventral tegmental area
314
why are meso dopamine areas of interest to researchers
play in the positively reinforc-ing and motivational aspects of drug use, and because they are implicated in schizophrenia
315
All highly addictive drugs, including amphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol, increase activity of these meso pathways and, in particular, elevate dopamine release in the ...
nucleus accumbens
316
Dopaminergic activity is greatly modulated by a number of other neurotransmitter systems whose afferents terminate in the ...
VTA.
317
Drugs used to treat psychotic disorders selectively block ..receptors, but some of the newer anti-psychotic drugs also have effects on other dopamine receptors
D2
318
The major noradrenergic system in the brain consists of cell bodies that reside in an area of the
pons called the ...
locus coeruleus
319
what does nonepinepherine do
Norepinephrine plays a role in attention, sleep and wakefulness, feeding behaviors,
320
Dysfunction of the NE system is linked with ...
depression and attention-deficit disorders
321
All four norad-renergic receptor subtypes are ...: alpha1, beta1, and beta2 are excitatory whereas alpha2 is inhibitory and acts as an autoreceptor
metabotropic
322
what do NE receptors do in the PNS
mediate hormonal control of various organs by catecholamines and activation of the autonomic nervous system.
323
The major collections of cell bodies for sero-tonin sit within seven brainstem ...which project to different regions of the CNS
raphe nuclei
324
The raphe nuclei of the medulla oblongata project to the lower brainstem and spinal cord where they control the release of enkephalins to decrease ...
pain sensitivity
325
...—the strengthening of connections between neurons—is the neurochemical foundation of learning and memory
synaptic plasticity
326
what happens if NMDA receptor acitvation is impeded
impede learning and memory Modification of this system, brought about by chronic drug use, has also been linked with craving and addiction
327
This provides an anatomical basis for DA-glutamate interactions in regulating ...
addiction.
328
GABA is synthesized in GABAergic cells from the amino acid ..., which is converted to glutamate by the enzyme glutaminase
glutamine
329
In GABAergic neurons, there is an additional enzyme called glutamic acid decarboxyl-ase (GAD) that is not present in glutamatergic neurons or in glia. GAD is the rate-limiting enzyme that con-verts glutamate to GABA what coenzyme is needed for this
vitamin B6
330
A diet deficient in vitamin B6 can lead to a decrease in GABA synthesis, resulting in ...
convulsions and possibly death
331
Following exocytosis, GABA is taken back into the presynaptic cell via reuptake transporters, and into glial cells where it is converted into ...
glutamate and then glutamine.
332
This provides an anatomical basis for DA-glutamate interactions in regulating ...
addiction.
333
GABA is synthesized in GABAergic cells from the amino acid ..., which is converted to glutamate by the enzyme glutaminase
glutamine
334
In GABAergic neurons, there is an additional enzyme called glutamic acid decarboxyl-ase (GAD) that is not present in glutamatergic neurons or in glia. GAD is the rate-limiting enzyme that con-verts glutamate to GABA what coenzyme is needed for this
vitamin B6
335
A diet deficient in vitamin B6 can lead to a decrease in GABA synthesis, resulting in ...
convulsions and possibly death
336
Following exocytosis, GABA is taken back into the presynaptic cell via reuptake transporters, and into glial cells where it is converted into ...
glutamate and then glutamine.
337
GABA binds to two classes of receptors: GABAA receptors and GABAB receptors what's the difference between these 2
GABAA receptors are ionotropic
| GABAB receptors are metabotropic G-protein-linked receptors
338
GABA a has an orthosteric site what does this means
?
339
what are gabab effects
. Their activation influences intracellular enzymes, such as adenylate cyclase, to modulate synthesis of the second-messenger cAMP. GABAB receptor stimulation also inhibits Ca2+ channel conductance and enhances the opening of K+ channels, hyperpolarizing the neuron.
340
GABAB receptors are found presynaptically on GABAergic axon terminals and on the dendrites and cell bodies of GABAergic neurons corresponding to the location of GABAergic terminals; here, they act as autoreceptors to ...
inhibit GABA release
341
what is a negative allosteric modulator
If the effects of GABA are diminished, the drug is a negative allosteric modulator;
342
how are NMDA and GABA a similar
Like NMDA receptors, GABAA receptors contain
| numerous binding sites, located both externally and internally
343
GABA a has an orthosteric site what does this means
?
344
In addition to an orthosteric site, the GABAA receptor complex contains .. binding sites to which other ligands, such as drug molecules, can attach.
allosteric
345
If there is an enhancement of GABAergic trans-mission, the drug is called a ..; alcohol, for example, is a positive allosteric modulator.
.positive allosteric modulator
346
what is a negative allosteric modulator
If the effects of GABA are diminished, the drug is a negative allosteric modulator;
