Chapter 8

Question 1

Külpes introspection

Answer 1

tried to research problem solving through introspection.
participants focused on their mental experience
stated that some thought are imageless

Question 2

thorndike’s behavioral approach to problem solving

Answer 2

concentrated on behavior
problem solving is trial and error
operant conditioning

Question 3

gestalt approach

Answer 3

there is insight to find new solutions;

and reproductive thinking to apply past solutions

Question 4

insight

Answer 4

The reorganizing or restructuring of the elements of the problem situation in such a way as to provide a solution. Also known as productive thinking.

Question 5

two string problem

Answer 5

a problem where people must repurpose tools to solve it

Question 6

functional fixedness

Answer 6

The inability to use an object appropriately in a given situation because of prior experience of using the object in a different way. Is a “block” to problem solution

Question 7

mental set

Answer 7

A term to describe the rote application of one successful method to solve a problem which makes one ‘blind’ to an alternative and possibly much simpler method.

Question 8

stages in the information processing approach (IPA)

general problem solver

Answer 8

1. representing the problem
2. selection of operators
3. implementation of the selected operators
4. evaluation of the current state

Question 9

1. representing the problem (IPA)

Answer 9

a !problem space! is constructed which includes both the initial state and the goal state, the instructions and the constraints on the problem and all relevant information retrieved from long-term memory. To assist such representation, symbols, lists, matrices, tree diagrams, graphs and visual imagery can all be used. This first stage reflects the assumption that problemsolving can be regarded as a form of search in a space consisting of all possible states of the problem.

Question 10

2. selection of operators (IPA)

Answer 10

operators are actions that will achieve a goal, and are used for transforming the initial state

Question 11

3. implementation of the chosen operators (IPA)

Answer 11

this results in a new current state within the problem space

Question 12

4. evaluation of the current state (IPA)

Answer 12

if it corresponds to the goal, a solution is reached

Question 13

heuristics

Answer 13

Methods or strategies which often lead to a problem solution but are not guaranteed to succeed.
most problems are solved this way.
have to be distinguished from algorithms

Question 14

algorithm

Answer 14

a method that will always yield a solution, sooner or later. You might have an algorithm to solve 21x123, a strategy that will always work

Question 15

state-action tree

Answer 15

A diagram showing all the possible sequences of actions and intermediate states which can be constructed if the problem is well-defined.

Question 16

problem reduction

Answer 16

An approach to problem solving that converts the problem into a number of sub-problems, each of which can be solved separately.

Question 17

hill climbing

Answer 17

operators are selected which make the current state of the problem as similar as possible to the goal state, so the problemsolver is likely to choose moves that reduce the distance between the current and goal states

Question 18

means-ends analysis

Answer 18

A general heuristic where a sub-problem is selected that will reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state.
e.g.: making travel plans

Question 19

difficulties in applying problem solving strategies

Answer 19

people have trouble making moves that increase the distance between current state and goal state, although they might be necessary

for very complex problems we need to shift strategies

inappropriate use of heuristics

Question 20

impasse

Answer 20

A sort of mental ‘blank’ experienced when trying to solve a problem, which is accompanied by a subjective feeling of not knowing what to do.
Can be caused by representing the problem wrongly

Question 21

representational-change explanation

Answer 21

reorganizing and restructuring the elements of a problem. ´The includes “chunk decomposition” and “constraints relaxation”

Question 22

chunk decomposition

Answer 22

Familiarity with certain objects or events can result in
the abstraction of a pattern or chunk of components or features, and to solve a problem we may need to change the way this information has been encoded. the probability of reencoding a piece of information is an inverse function of how tightly the information is chunked in the current representation

Question 23

constraint relaxation

Answer 23

We natural assume constraints to the solution of a task, that might not actually be there. constraint relaxation can help overcome an impasse by making the requirements of the task less restrictive than initially assumed.

Question 24

two process model

Answer 24

1. using a representational change
2. the selection of the procedure is reinforced when it is used repeatedly, assuming it is successful
   When non-insight problems are encountered, the first process is skipped and if an insight problem follows the representational change process will have to be applied first.
   Therefore first solving non-insight problems will not
   hinder the subsequent solution of insight problems. However, solving insight problems using one particular representational change process will inhibit the solution of subsequent insight problems if these need to be solved via a different form of representational change

Question 25

insight problem

Answer 25

a problem that requires representational change, i.e. chunk decomposition or constraint relaxation

Question 26

three phases of analogical mapping

Answer 26

1. the problem to be solved must be interpreted 2. a useful source of analogy must be retrieved from long term memory 3. some similarity between source analogue and target problem has to be noted and the elements of the source analogue mapped onto the target problem

Question 27

after you found a fitting analogy

Answer 27

The novel information provided by the source allows inferences to be drawn and transferred. Alternatively, the mapping may involve matching relationships rather than conveying new knowledge. We might even induct an abstract schema to be used in the future

Question 28

real life use of analogies

Answer 28

not an automatic process, requires controlled attempts people can use higher order analogies if prompted and in arguments, but stay more superficial for practical problem solving. Is a generic problem solving technique that is equally used by novices and experts (of a specific field)

Question 29

structural and superficial similarities

Answer 29

structural similarities are "higher order" similarities as they refer to the underlying relations between the problems. superficial similarities refer to objects and their properties that are shared

Question 30

effectiveness of analogical reasoning

Answer 30

analogical reasoning is beneficial because it aids schema abstraction, which is helpful solve problems

Question 31

two functions of analogies

Answer 31

problem solving; uses higher order analogies | illustration: uses more superficial analogies

Question 32

three criteria for problem solving

Answer 32

1. The activities must be goal-directed, i.e. the individual attempts to attain a particular end state. 2. The attainment of the goal or solution must involve a sequence of mental processes rather than just one. 3. These processes should be discernibly cognitive.

Question 33

deductive reasoning task

Answer 33

A problem that has a well-defined structure in a system of formal logic where the conclusion is certain.

Question 34

inductive reasoning task

Answer 34

A problem that has a well-defined structure in a system of formal logic where the conclusion is highly probable but not necessarily true.

Question 35

why we make formal reasoning errors

Answer 35

because we process massive amounts of information each day and have to make short cuts. We make less mistakes if the formal problem is close to real life situations

Question 36

confirmation bias

Answer 36

to form our hypothesis we try to confirm our first idea, instead of disconfirming it, which would often be a more correct strategy. This bias is not a general tendencies but influenced by factors like working memory constraints and encouragement to test multiple hypotheses

Question 37

human accuracy to basic inference rules (e.g. modus ponens)

Answer 37

modus ponens: no mistakes modus tollens: 30% mistakes affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent: often seen as valid although they are not

Question 38

why do people make deductive logical mistakes?

Answer 38

because thy draw from their existing knowledge to judge the conclusion. Also the form of the promises (tips or warnings) as well as the authority of the source influence reasoning

Question 39

how do people solve deductive problems?

Answer 39

they use a mix of logic and heuristic, like confirmation or matching bias

Question 40

mental logic theories

Answer 40

our reasoning is underpinned by mental rules. Three parts: a set of inference schemas; selection of appropriate schema; pragmatic principles that influence how the problem statements are interpreted additional rules can be acquired, existing rules can be altered

Question 41

pragmatic reasoning schemata

Answer 41

Clusters of rules that are highly generalized and abstracted but defined with respect to different types of relationships and goals. These are pragmatic not logical, although they might appear logical. Has not received much attention in research

Question 42

mental model

Answer 42

A representation that we construct according to what is described in the premises of a reasoning problem and this representation will depend on how we interpret these premises.

Question 43

reasoning using mental models

Answer 43

first comprehend the premises, second reason with the models you made. It can be difficult to comprehend a premise (as in a complicated sentence) and it can be difficult to reason with models. Did you find all possible models? The more possible mental models, the more difficult the reasoning

Question 44

probabilistic approach

Answer 44

our everyday reasoning is probabilistic and we make errors when presented with logical tasks in the laboratory because we draw on the strategies we use in everyday life

Question 45

dual process account

Answer 45

1. fast and intuitive 2. slow and deliberate different brain regions are activated depending on the process

Question 46

type 1 processing (dual process account)

Answer 46

old and evolved early is innate or based on experiential learning operates largely automatically it functions independently of general intelligence independent of working memory

Question 47

type 2 processing (dual process account)

Answer 47

new and distinctively human permits rule based reasoning heavily dependent on working memory