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An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology > Chapter 6 > Flashcards

Chapter 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

Encoding

A

The process of transforming a sensory stimulus into a memory trace.

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2
Q

The 3 main stages of memory process

A 
Input stage (encoding), storage stage (held in preparation for future), output stage (retrieval)
each stage will need to be completed before we can retrieve a memory
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3
Q

nonsense syllables

A

like the name tells (e.g. VOP or TUV), used by Ebbinghaus to eliminate the unwanted variable of already knowing words

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4
Q

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

A

The phenomenon that we forget information quickly in the beginning and that forgetting declines over time in intensity

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5
Q

Two main theories of Ebbinghaus to explain the forgetting curve

A

Decay and interferece

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6
Q

Decay (Ebbinghaus)

A

Memories fade away with the passage of time, regardless of other input

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7
Q

Interference (Ebbinghaus)

A

Memories are actively disrupted by the influence of some other input

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8
Q

retroactive interference

A

memory scores for the learning of one list were considerably reduced by the subsequent learning of a second list (argument for interference)

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9
Q

proactive interference

A

memory for a list is subject to interference from a previously learned list

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10
Q

The degree of interference through an item depends on

A

The degree of similarity between the target item and the items interfering with it.

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11
Q

decay with disuse theory

A

By Throndike: Decay only affects memory traces which remain unused for a long period

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12
Q

New Theory of Disuse (NTD)

A

Access to a memory trace is strengthened by frequent retrieval, whereas unretrieved memories become more inaccessible as time passes

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13
Q

Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF)

A

The phenomenon whereby the successful retrieval of a memory trace inhibits the retrieval of rival memory traces

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14
Q

Bartlett’s story recall experiments important findings

A

People rationalise the story to make it fit in with their expectations

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15
Q

Explanations for Bartlett’s story recall experiment

A

In terms of schema theory, we perceive and encode information into our memories in terms of our past experience. We compare our new perceptual input with out schemas in an effort to find something meaningful.

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16
Q

When we provide background information and helpful pictures to a story it becomes more…
(and what about chess players?)

A

Memorable, becuase we can make use of our knowledge and experince to increase its meaningfulness. Also the reason why chess experts can better remember chessboard positions, but not if the figures are positioned randomly.

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17
Q

Scripts

A

a form of schema which combines a sequence of events which might normally be expected in a particular situation (e.g. after you found a table in a restaurant, a waiter will take your order) to help us organise our plans and actions by providing a framework

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18
Q

Memory distortion

A

That wrong things get recalled. Few studies about that so far.

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19
Q

Mnemonic

A

A techique or strategy used for improving the emorability of items, e.g. by adding meaningful associations

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20
Q

levels of processing (LOP) theory

A

processing of new perceptual input involves the extraction of information at a series of levels of increasing depth of analysis: Input -> Structural processing -> Acoustic processing -> Semantic processing

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21
Q

LOP theory, like schema theory explain that meaningful material is more memorable, by

A

postulating that meaningful material can be more deeply processed

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22
Q

Orienting task

A

A set of instructions used to influence the type of cognitive processing employed. Evidence supporting LOP theory

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23
Q

Procedure and results of the orienting task experiment by Craik and Tulving

A

3 groups: 1. Structural orienting task (e.g. is word in block capitals?)
2. Acoustic orienting task (e.g.does word rhyme with ‘bat’?)
3. Semantic orienting task (e.g. does word fit the sentence ‘the cat sat on the ___’?)
=tasks which require deep processing tend to produce better retrieval than do task which involve shallower processing

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24
Q

In a orienting task, a group that was instructed to learn a list deliberately their recall scores were better than those of the group performing incidental learning with a semantic orienting task. True or false?

A

False, they were just as good as the group with the semantic orienting task.

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25
Q

Critique against LOP theory

And modification

A
  • The strict processing sequence is not entirely plausible, because they are qualitatively different and discontinuous
  • semantic processing can sometimes take place before the ‘shallower’ structural and acoustic stages are complete
  • > Now,the 3 processes run parallel
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26
Q

Difference maintenance and elaborative rehearsal

A

maintenance rehearsal -> input is merely repeated without further processing (just to hold temporarily) -> better for recognition tests (MR for item-specific processing)
elaborative rehearsal -> links are created between the new input and previously stored information (lead to longterm) -> better for recall tests (relational processing)

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27
Q

Elaborative encoding

A

refers to the formation of associative connections with other memory traces, and this occurs most effectively where meaningful associations can be found.

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28
Q

Mandler’s organisation theory

A

memory is structured into a semantic network of related items, and accessing one item activates the whole network.

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29
Q

Two ways of testing retrieval

A

recall and recognition

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30
Q

Two types of recall

A

spontaneous recall -> requires the generation of items from memory without help
cued recall -> retrieval cues are provided to remind us of the items to be recalled

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31
Q

Ranking: What let us name most distinctive items? Spontaneous recall, recognition, cued recall

A

Recognition most, then cued recall, lastly spontaneous recall

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32
Q

generate and recognise (GR) theory

A

explains the superiority of recognition over recall: recall involves an extra stage -> participants must first generate possible target items and take those through a recognition test to discriminate correct from incorrect.

33
Q

recognition failure of recallable items

A

People are unable to recognise items which they can recall. Evidence against GR theory

34
Q

encoding specificity principle (ESP) (Tulving ESP theory)

A

The theory that retrieval cues will only be successful in accessing a memory trace if they contain someof the same items of information which were stored with the original trace.

35
Q

feature overlap (Tulving ESP theory)

A

The extent to which features of the memory trace stored at input match those available in the retrieval cues. According to the ESP, successful retrieval requires extensive feature overlap.

36
Q

ESO theory depends on the interaction between ecoding and retrieval information. True or false?

A

True. It is an important aspect. It is like the way a key fits a lock. Depends on the key and the lock, not only one

37
Q

Transfer-approüriate processing (TAP)

A

refers to the finding that the most effective type of input processing will be whatever offers the closest match with the available retrieval cues (processing transfers from input to output stage) -> if retrieval cues are acoustic in nature (subject asked to recall a word similar in sound to a cue word) then acoustic orienting tasks are found to produce superior retrieval

38
Q

Context-dependent memory

A

e.g. sometimes a particular piece of music may bring back old memories
If you have to recall learned material in a room you have been studying in you are better.

39
Q

Context-dependent memory does only work if

A

the subject is paying attention to their surroundings, and its effects may be masked by distraction or stress

40
Q

State-dependent memory

A

if you are drunk while learning you can recall better if you are drunk again

41
Q

mood-congruent memory

A

You recall happy memories when you are happy and depressed if you are depressed

42
Q

Episodic memory

A

Memory for specific episodes and events from personal experience, occurring in a particular context of time and space

43
Q

Semantic memory

A

Memory for general knwoledge, such as the meanings associated with particular words and shapes, without reference to any specific contextual episode

44
Q

Which memory is more sophisticated, episodic or semantic?

A

Episodic. Seems to be human specific. Entirely speculative. (Tulving)

45
Q

Different brain regions for episodic and semantic memory (go for the 10 mf!)

A

episodic memory recall (contextual episodes) causes activation in the right prefrontal cortex and hippocampus - semantic memory causes activation in the left temporal lobe. Regions of the frontal cortex which are activated to a similar degree by both.

46
Q

Familiarity (Mandler)

A

The recognition of an item as one that has been encountered on some previous occasion (automatic process)

47
Q

Recollection (Mandler)

A

Remembering a specific event or occasion on which an item was previously encountered (controlled process)

48
Q

Two distinguished memory systems of Mandler (1980)

A

Familiarity and Recollection

49
Q

What is impaired in most amnesic patients? Familiarity or Recollection?

A

Recollection. Familiarity is relatively unimpaired

50
Q

Brain regions familiarity and recollection

A

familiarity perirhinal cortex - recollection medial temporal lobes and hippocampus

51
Q

Match the pathways (‘what’ and ‘where’) to familiarity and recollection

A

familiarity is ‘what’ pathway and goes to the perirhinal cortex - recollection, contextual information, is ‘where’ pathway and goes to para-hippocampal cortex. They converge and meet at the medial temporal lobes

52
Q

R and K procedure

A

‘remember and know procedure’ to measure relative contributions of familiarity and recollection.
Participants were asked whether their recognition responses are based on consciously remembering the presentation of a test item (R) or on knowing that the item is familiar without any specific memory of seeing it (K)

53
Q

findings of the R and K procedure

A

R scores for verbal items were significantly reduced when the participant was distractated by a second task doing learning of the list, no such effects for K
Semantic oriented tasks produce higher R scores than do non-semantic tasks, no such effects for K

54
Q

Some info about implicit and explicit memory (can’t come up with an idea to make this a proper card)

A

If you prime people they can recall things better, explicit memory is impaired by distraction, implicit not, implicit memory can remain in store a very long time, old people better in implicit memory than young people.

55
Q

Brain activation while retrieval of explicit and implicit memory

A

explicit: increased activation of the left and right parietal and temporal lobes
implicit: reduced activation in the frontal and occipital lobes and in the left fusiform gyrus.

56
Q

conversational plagiarism or cryptomnesia

A

someone unwillingly repeats a word they have just heard without being aware of having heard it. Someone uses an unusual word like ‘exquisite’ (would be a better world if it weren’t unusual) and shortly afterwards a different person will use it as well.

57
Q

deja vu

A

some new situation triggers an implicit memory for some similar experience in the past, which can no longer be recalled in a coscious and explicit manner.

58
Q

The automatic and effortful memory systems by Schacter. Give the whole classifications.

A

Automatic: Implicit memory, Familiarity, Semantic memory
Effortful: Explicit memory, Recollection, Episodic memory

59
Q

Testing effect

A

The finding that actively testing a memory improves its subsequent retrievability

60
Q

Storage strength and retrieval strength

A

Concepts in NTD: Storage strength -> how well the item has been learned and tends to be fairly permanent
Retrieval strength -> reflects the accessibility of the trace, which varies considerably from moment to moment

61
Q

retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF)

A

practicing the retrieval of a memory trace not only strengthens that trace, but also may cause the inhibition of rival items, which could explain the decay of disused items over time.

62
Q

Two different hypothesis to RIF

A

Anderson: RIF is caused by an inhibitory mechanism in the brain, which has evolved for the specific purpose of suüüressing unwated memories.
Others: RIF might merely reflect the blocking of an unpractised response -> by strengthening the connection between the practiced item and the cue, the cue is prevented from generating alternative items.

63
Q

Connection RIF and NTD

A

PTSD: no RIF
Phobics: threngthened through repeated retrieval that suppress the less distressing memories. By retrieving the less distressing memories the phobic memories get inhibited.
Depression and Anxiety: RIF scores are impaired
Sad mood: also reduced RIF

64
Q

Directed forgetting (DF)

A

Deliberately suppressing a memory if instructed to do so, and this is assumed to involve effortful and conscious processing. Mostly takes place in the encoding stage, but also retrieval. Equally strong for recall and recognition tests.

65
Q

not remembering negative items and having a high WM, which one is positive and which is negative for DF?

A

It is harder to inhibit negative items, people with a high WM are better at forgetting items.

66
Q

Reconsolidation

A

The finding that the reactivation of a memory makes it temporarily vulnerable to change

67
Q

Misinformation effect

A

The contamination of eyewitness testimony by information acquired after the witnessed event

68
Q

Ecological validity

A

The extent to which the conditions of a research experiment resemble those encountered in real-life settings.

69
Q

Reminiscence bump

A

Older people tend to recall an increased amount from their early adult years -> maybe because these are the good years (favorite footballplayer often also from this time, first trip, etc.)

70
Q

infantile amnesia and explanations

A

People actually remember nothing at all from the first two or three years of their life
Brain may not be completed (hippocampus takes several years to fully develop)
Maybe because of lack of language to think properly
Different kind of storage (semantic instead of episodic)

71
Q

flashbulb memory

A

A subject’s recollection of details of what they were doing at the time of some major news event or dramatic incident

  • > even relative trivial
  • > might be linked to ptsd, phobias, etc.
72
Q

misinformation effect

A

eyewitness testimony is prone to contamination from information acquired after the event.
Children and people with low WM and capasity and low intelligence are susceptible to the effect

73
Q

memory implantation

A

creation of false memories in the mind of a witness by the use of suggestion effects

74
Q

Ways against misinformation effect & memory implantation

A

Statements should be taken from witnesses as soon as possible, witnesses should be allowed to use notes, and care in the way questions are asked

75
Q

Cognitive interview (CI)

A

An approach to interviewing eyewitnesses which makes use of findings of cognitive psychology, such as context reinstatement -> more retrieval cues

76
Q

Context reinstatement (CR)

A

Technique in CI: reminded of various aspects, reminded about all aspects of the crime scene

77
Q

Remember everything (RE)

A

Technique in CI: questions about all circumstances and what can be retrieved regardless how irrelevant it might seem

78
Q

Effects of CI

A

Very good for everything, but also more wrong things are recalled, not suitible for small children (8 and above fine), less effective after very long retention intervals

An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology (8 decks)

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