Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, And Language/ Chapter 8: Human Development Flashcards
Cognition
The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
Artificial intelligence (AI)
A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of preforming activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
Thinking
The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically and creatively
Concepts
A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics
Prototype model
A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with the item’s properties
Problem solving
The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available
Sub goals
Intermediate goals or problems to solve that put one into a better position for reaching a final goal or solution
Algorithms
Strategies- including formulas, instructions, and testing of all possible solutions- that guarantee a solution to a problem
Heuristics
Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer
Fixation
Using a prior strategy and failing to look at the problem from a fresh and new perspective
Functioned fixedness
Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions
Reasoning
The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusion
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning From specific observations to make generalizations
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance
Decision making
The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
Loss aversion
The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to attempting to acquire gains
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for and use information that supports ones ideas rather than refutes them
Hindsight bias
The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately reported an outcome
Availability heuristic
A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events
Base rate neglect
The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
Representativeness heuristic
The tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearence or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information
Critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence
Mindfulness
The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities
Creativity
The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to the problems
Divergent thinking
Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem
Convergent thinking
Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem
Intelligence
All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience
Validity
The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. In the realm of testing, the extent to which a test measures what its intended to measure
Reliability
The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
An individuals mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100
Normal distribution
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with the majority of test scores (or other data) falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores (or other data) appearing towards the extremes
Culture-fair tests
Intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased
Gifted
Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area
Intellectual disability
A condition of limited mental ability in which and individual has a low IQ, usually under 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life
Triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg’s theory theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytic, practical, and creative
Language
A form of communication-whether spoken, written, or signed- that is based on a system of symbols
Syntax
A language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
Chomsky’s biological theory of language
Evolution that occurred thousands of years ago physically prepared our bodies for language which gives us a distinct advantage in our ability to communicate over other species
Enviromental influences
Language is a learned skill that is reinforced throughout development. (Ex. Baby gets rewarded for saying mama)
Development
The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline
Cross-sectional design
A research design in which a group of people is assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time
Longitudinal design
A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interests in multiple waves over time
Nature
An individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes
Nurture
An individual’s environmental and social experiences
Resilience
A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
Germinal period
Weeks 1 and 2. Starts with conception. Fertilized egg is called a zygote. By the end of the first week the zygote has 100-150 cells. By the end of 2 weeks the mass of the cell has attached to the uterine wall.
Embryonic period
Weeks 3-8. Zygote has become and embryo. Cell development rapidly increases and organs begin to form. Neural tube, which will become the spinal cord begins to develop. Heart begins to beat.
Fetal period
Months 2 through 9. At 2 months the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has begun to move around. At 4 months the fetus is 5 inches long and weighs around 5 ounces. The last 3 months of fetal period organ function and growth rapidly increase. When born babies are around 19 inches long and around 7 lbs.
Teratogen
Any agent that causes a problem in prenatal development
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Piaget theorizes that we develop in 4 distinct stages, each of which involves making sense of the world in ways that is qualitatively different from the way before it
Assimilation
An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge
Accommodation
An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants conduct and understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions
Object permanence
Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard or touched. Ideally occurs in the sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about two to seven years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought
Concrete operational stage
Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 years to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operation and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations
Conservation
The idea that operations are reversible (under the right circumstances). Such as pouring water from a tall thin glass to a short wide one, and the amount being the same.
Formal operational stage
Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development, which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypothesis about the future
Executive function
Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving
Socioemotional processes
Involve changes in person’s social relationships, emotional life, and personality
Temperment
An individuals behavior style and characteristic way of responding
Infant attatchment
The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver
Secure attatchment
The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the enviroment
Trust vs. mistrust
Developmental period: infancy (birth-1.5 years). A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimum amount of fear about the future. Infants basic needs are met by responsive, sensitive caregivers
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Developmental period: folder (1.5-3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers infants start to discover that they have a will of their own. They assert their sense of autonomy, or independence. They realize their will. If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. guilt
Development period: early childhood (3-5 years old). As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenged more and need to develop more purposeful behavior to cope with these challenged. Children are now asked to assume more responsibility. Uncomfortable guilt feeling may arise, thought, if children are too irresponsible and made to feel too anxious.
Industry vs. inferiority
Developmental period: middle to late childhood (6 years through puberty). At no other time are children more enthusiastic than at the end of early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. As children move into the elementary school years, they direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The danger at this stage involves feeling incompetent and unproductive.
Identity vs. identity confusion
Developmental period: adolescence (10 to 20 years). Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. An important dimension is the exploration of of alternative solutions to roles. Career exploration is important.
Intimacy vs. isolation
Early adulthood (20s-30s). Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others. Erickson described intimacy as finding oneself yet losing oneself in another person.
Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle adulthood (40s-50s). A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives.
Integrity vs. despair
Late adulthood (60s-). Individuals look back and evaluate what they have done with their lives. The retrospective glances can be either positive (integrity) or negative (despair)
Authoritarian parenting
A restrictive, punitive parenting style in which parents exhort the child to follow the parents directions and to value hard work and effort
Authoritative parenting
A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior
Neglectful parenting
A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life
Permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behavior
Emerging adulthood
The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years of age
Gender
The social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither
Gender identity
A person’s inner concepts of themselves in relation to the ideas of being male, female, both, or neither
Sexual orientation
The direction of an individuals erotic interest, today viewed as a continuum from exclusively male-female relations to exclusive same gender relations
Gender roles
Roles that reflect society’s expectation of how people of different genders should think, act, and feel
Gender similarities hypothesis
Hyde’s proposition that people of different genders are much more similar than they are different
Moral development
Involves changes that occur with age in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide them as they interact with others
Preconventional (morality)
The person’s moral reasoning is based primarily on the consequences of a behavior and on punishments and rewards from the external world. (Ex. Not wanting to go to jail)
Conventional (morality)
The person abides by standards learned from parents or society’s laws. At this level a person might reason that someone should follow the law not matter what.
Postconventional (morality)
The person recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then developed and increasingly personal moral code. (Ex. Breaking a law to help a person you love. Or not following a law because you don’t believe it’s just)
Prosocial behavior
Behavior that is intended to benefit other people
