Chapter 7 - LTM: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation

Question 1

Encoding

Answer 1

• the process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM

Question 2

Retrieval

Answer 2

• bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory

Question 3

Maintenance rehearsal

Answer 3

• little or no encoding and therefore poor memory
• ex. repeating a phone number over and over won’t put it into LTM after you’ve successfully written it down

Question 4

Elaborative rehearsal

Answer 4

• considering meanings or making connections to other information in order to remember something better
• better memory than maintenance rehearsal

Question 5

Levels of processing theory

Answer 5

• the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded (transferred to LTM), with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow

Question 6

depth of processing

Answer 6

• distinguishes between deep and shallow processing

Question 7

Shallow processing

Answer 7

• involves little attention to meaning

Question 8

Deep processing

Answer 8

• involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else
• results in better memory than shallow processing

Question 9

paired-associate learning

Answer 9

• testing whether connecting words by creating visual representations in your mind would help with memory
• a learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word

Question 10

self-reference effect

Answer 10

• memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
• leads to a richer understanding

Question 11

Generation effect

Answer 11

• generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention

Question 12

Retrieval cue

Answer 12

• a word or stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory

Question 13

Is recognition better than recall

Answer 13

• yes
• ex. better at instantly recognizing someone than trying to remember where you met someone that one time

Question 14

Encoding specificity

Answer 14

• refers to the idea that memory retrieval is improved when the encoding context is the same as the retrieval context

Question 15

Decay

Answer 15

• memories gradually get weaker over time and fade from LTM

Question 16

Proactive interference

Answer 16

• previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material

Question 17

when is recall better than recognition?

Answer 17

• when recall is cued i.e. encoding specificity

Question 18

What makes a good cue?

Answer 18

encoding specificity hypothesis:
when the cue is in the same context as where the memory was originally encoded
(context-dependent memory)

Question 19

Retrieval practice effect

Answer 19

• when practicing memory retrieval increases elaboration (enhancing and deepened understanding), which increases performance on memory tasks
• looking at level 5 flash cards even though you know them already helps you remember them for longer (boring and easy is good)

Question 20

Testing effect

Answer 20

• enhanced performance due to retrieval practice
• ex. being tested is important for learning (ex. cue cards)
• testing is a form of generation because it requires active involvement with the material

Question 21

Why is encoding necessary for successful memory?

Answer 21

• it is the way information can be transferred to LTM and therefore retrieved later
• allows for information to be retained properly

Question 22

transferring to LTM

Elaboration

Answer 22

• thinking about what you are learning and giving it meaning by relating it to other things that you know
• becomes easier as you learn more because you’re simply adding to a structure

Question 23

Transferring to LTM

Organizing

Answer 23

• creates a framework that helps relate some info to other info to make it more meaningful (ex. mindmaps or cheat sheets)
• helps reduce the load on your memory
• relates to chunking

Question 24

Spacing effect

Answer 24

• the advantage in performance caused by short study sessions separated by breaks from studying

Question 25

How can location serve as a retrieval cue?

Answer 25

• returning to the location that a memory was formed at can help bring it back

Question 26

free recall

Answer 26

• asked to recall from your mind

Question 27

cued recall

Answer 27

• given cues to help with recall
• typically words or phrases

Question 28

Retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding.
What are the 3 situations in which this is true?

Answer 28

1. encoding specificity
2. state-dependent learning
3. transfer-appropriate processing

Question 29

Encoding specificity

Answer 29

• principle that states that we encode information along with its context
• can explain how location is used as a retrieval cue

Question 30

State-dependent learning

Answer 30

• learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness
• idea that memory is better when a person’s mood during retrieval matches his or her mood during encoding

Question 31

Transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 31

• retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during both encoding and retrieval

Question 32

Consolidation

Answer 32

• transferring new memories from their initial fragile state to a permanent state where they are resistant to disruption

Question 33

Synaptic consolidation

Answer 33

• structural changes at the nerve junction (synapse)
• can take minutes or hours
• short term stabilization
• happens quickly then systems takes over

Question 34

Systems consolidation

Answer 34

• gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain
• can take months or years
• rewires the system
• process of reactivation

Question 35

Neural circuits

Answer 35

• interconnected groups of neurons

Question 36

What are the 2 types of consolidation?

Answer 36

1. synaptic
2. systems

Question 37

how is synaptic and systems consolidation connected?

Answer 37

• they aren’t separate
• they work together but at different speeds
• synaptic works fast, as new info comes in
• systems works to make changes according to the new info

Question 38

synaptic consolidation

What is Hebb’s theory of changes in the synapse?

Answer 38

• learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse
• idea that repeated activity can strengthen the synapse by causing structural changes, greater transmission release, and increased firing
• one cell setting off the next will eventually lead to stronger connections (fire together, wire together)

Question 39

synaptic consolidation

What does Hebb suggest about how experiences are represented by neurons

Answer 39

• if 2 neurons repeatedly fire at the same time during an experience, the connection (synapse) between them becomes stronger
• this increased strength means the neurons are more likely to fire together in the future which creates a memory trace of the experience
• ex. repeated firing/practice will help form neural connections and help with consolidating memories

Question 40

synaptic consolidation

Long-term potentiality (usefulness in the future)

Answer 40

• enhanced firing for neurons after repeated stimulation
• every time we learn something new, our brain connections change
• When two neurons communicate frequently, the synapse between them becomes more effective at transmitting signals

Question 41

Standard model of consolidation

Answer 41

• hippocampus is key for memory but it isn’t where memories are stored
• memories are stored in the cortex but it needs the hippocampus to keep firing those areas of the brain in order to increase connections
• eventually, the hippocampus can back off and intercortical connections remain

Question 42

Reactivation

Answer 42

• the hippocampus “teaches” the cortex
• it is important during the early stages of memory because it is replaying the neural activity associated with a memory and sending this info to the cortex
• helps form connections between the various cortical areas
• hippocampus is like a clamp waiting for the glue to dry

Question 43

Retrograde amnesia

Answer 43

• loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury
• inability to remember things from the past

Question 44

Graded amnesia

Answer 44

• part of retrograde amnesia
• memory loss is most severe for events occuring closest to the injury but not as bad for things that made it to LTM
• connected to the cortical connections not being finished yet (hippo still holding)

Question 45

Anterograde amnesia

Answer 45

• inability to form new memories

Question 46

Multiple trace model of consolidation

Answer 46

• idea that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories
• suggests that early in consolidation the hippocampus communicates with cortical areas and that it remains active
• works particularly for episodic memories because you don’t need the hippocampus for semantic memories

Question 47

Multivoxel pattern analysis

Answer 47

• determines the pattern of voxel activation by specfific stimuli within various structures
• in contrast, fmri only determines which areas are activated

Question 48

How does sleep help consolidation?

Answer 48

• elimitates possibly distracting stimuli
• chooses more important memories and enhances consolidation
• selectively choose things that we think will be useful later

Question 49

reconsolidation

Answer 49

• the idea that when a memory is retrieved, it becomes fragile again and will need to be reconsolidated
• the process of updating memories

Question 50

Temporal context model

Answer 50

• concept that old circumstances can become associated with new memories, without changing the content of existing memories

Question 51

Metacognition

Answer 51

• knowledge about our cognitive processes
• poor metacognition leads to illusions of learning (ex. highlighting)

Question 52

Metamemory

Answer 52

• knowledge about our memory
• ex. knowing we should make a note or we will forget it

Question 53

Metacomprehension

Answer 53

• knowledge about our understanding
• ex. when we test ourselves while studying we are challenging our knowledge of our understanding
• we assume we know more than we do

Question 54

Introspection

Answer 54

• looking inward at our own cognitive ability
• we think we’re good at it but we’re not - introspection illusion

Question 55

Flashbulb memory

Answer 55

• very vivid memories that we insist are accurate
• like a normal memory but we are overly confident about it’s accuracy
• confidence doesn’t equal accuracy

Question 56

Dunning-Kruger effect

Answer 56

• the less someone knows about a topic, the more likely they are to overestimate how well they know it