Chapter 7: Long-Term Memory (Encoding, Retrieval, Consolidation)

Question 1

Maintenece

Answer 1

rehearsal that involves repetition without any consolidation of meaning or making connections to other information

Question 2

Elaborative Rehearsal

Answer 2

rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge

Question 3

Levels of Processing Theory

Answer 3

the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded, with better memory being achieved when processing is deep then when processing is shallow

deep processing involves attention to meaning and is associated with elaborative rehearsal

shallow processing involves repetition with little attention to meaning and is associated with maintenance rehearsal

Question 4

Shallow Processing

Answer 4

processing that involves repetition with little attention to meaning, is usually associated with maintenance rehearsal

Question 5

Deep Processing

Answer 5

processing that involves attention to meaning and relating an item to something else, is usually associated with elaborative rehearsal

Question 6

Paired-Associate Learning

Answer 6

a learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, the one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word

Question 7

Self-Reference Effect

Answer 7

memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self

Question 8

Generation Effect

Answer 8

memory for material is better when a person generates the material him or herself, rather than passively receiving it

Question 9

Testing Effect

Answer 9

enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered

Question 10

Spacing Effect

Answer 10

the advantage in performance caused by short study session separated by breaks from studying

Question 11

Free Recall

Answer 11

a procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to remember stimuli they were previously presented

Question 12

Cued Recall

Answer 12

a procedure for testing memory in which a participant is presented with cues, such as words or phases, to aid recall of previously experienced stimuli

Question 13

Encoding Specificity

Answer 13

the principle that we learn information together with its context, this means that presence of the context can lead to enhanced memory for the information

Question 14

State-Dependent Learning

Answer 14

the principle that memory is best when a person is in the same state for encoding and retrieval

this principle is related to encoding specificity

Question 15

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Answer 15

when the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval

this type of processing can result in enhanced memory

Question 16

Consolidation

Answer 16

the process that transforms new memories into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption

Question 17

Synaptic Consolidation

Answer 17

a process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes

Question 18

Systems Consolidation

Answer 18

a consolidation process that involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a long timescale, lasting weeks, months, or even years

Question 19

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Answer 19

the increased firing that occurs in a neuron due to prior activity at the synapse

Question 20

Standard Model of Consolidation

Answer 20

proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus

Question 21

Reactiviation

Answer 21

a process that occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory

during reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex

this activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas

Question 22

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 22

loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event such as a concussion

Question 23

Graded Amnesia

Answer 23

when amnesia is most severe for events that occurred just prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events

Question 24

Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation

Answer 24

the idea that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories

this contrasts with the standard model of memory, which proposes that the hippocampus is involved only in the retrieval of recent memories

Question 25

Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA)

Answer 25

a procedure for determining the pattern of voxel activation that is elicited by specific stimulus, within various structures

Question 26

Classifier

Answer 26

in multivoxel pattern analysis, the classifier is a computer program designed to recognize patterns of voxel activity

Question 27

Reconsolidation

Answer 27

a process proposed by Nader and others that occurs when a memory is retrieved and so becomes reactivated

once this occurs, the memory must be consolidated again, as it was during the initial learning

this repeat consolidation is reconsolidation

Question 28

What is encoding?

Answer 28

acquiring information and transforming it into memory

Question 29

What is retrieval?

Answer 29

transferring information from LTM to working memory (consciousness)

most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve

location as a retrieval cue

Question 30

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 30

repetition of stimuli that maintains information but does not transfer it to LTM

Question 31

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 31

using meanings and connections to help transfer information to LTM

Question 32

What is the levels of processing theory?

Answer 32

memory depends on how information is encoded

Question 33

What is shallow processing?

Answer 33

little attention to meaning

focus on physical features

poor memory

Question 34

What is deep processing?

Answer 34

close attention to memory

better memory

Question 35

How can we fall into circular reasoning when deciding which tasks cause deeper processing?

Answer 35

using a word in a sentence

deciding how useful an object might be on a desert island

can empirically measure the memory trace in each condition: conclude that stronger memory trace must have been caused by deeper processing

but depth of processing has not been defined independently of memory performance

therefore, this is circular processing

Question 36

What are other factors that aid encoding?

Answer 36

visual imagery

self-reference effect

generation effect

organizing to-be-remembered information

relating words to survival value

retrieval practice

Question 37

What is cued-recall?

Answer 37

cue presented to aid recall

increased performance over free-recall

retrieval cues most effective when created by the person who uses them

Question 38

What is state-dependent learning?

Answer 38

learning is associated with a particular internal state

better memory if person’s mood at encoding matched mood during retrieval

Question 39

Why is the distributed method better than the massed practice effect?

Answer 39

difficult to maintain close attention throughout a long study session

studying after a break gives feedback about what you already know

Question 40

What is consolidation?

Answer 40

transform new memories from fragile stare to more permanent state

synaptic consolidation occurs at synapses, happens rapidly

system consolidation involves gradual reorganization of circuits in brain

Question 41

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

Answer 41

enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation

structural changes and enhanced responding

Question 42

What is the standard model of consolidation?

Answer 42

retrieval depends on hippocampus during consolidation; after consolidation hippocampus is no longer needed

reactivation: hippocampus replays neural activity associated with memory

Question 43

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 43

loss of memory for events prior to the trauma

Question 44

What is graded amnesia?

Answer 44

memory for recent events is more fragile than for remote events

Question 45

What is the multiple trace model of consolidation?

Answer 45

hippocampus is activated during retrieval of both recent and remote event memories

response of the hippocampus can change over time

Question 46

Are memories ever “permanent”?

Answer 46

reactivation and reconsolidation evidence from research on animals: occurs under certain conditions

human memory is a “work in progress”