Chapter 5: Short-Term and Working Memory Flashcards
Memory
the process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present
Modal Model of Memory
the model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that describes memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, including short-term memory and long-term memory
it is called the modal model because it contained features of many models that were being proposed on the 1960’s
Structural Features
types of memory indicated by boxes in models of memory
in the modal model, the types are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory
Control Process
in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model of memory, active processes that can be controlled by the person and that may differ from one task to another
rehearsal is an example of a control process
Rehearsal
the process of repeating a stimulus over and over, usually for the purpose of remembering it, that keeps the stimulus active in short-term memory
Sensory Memory
a brief stage of memory that holds information for seconds or fractions of a second
it is the first stage in the modal model of memory
Persistence of Vision
the continued perception of light for a fraction of a second after the original light stimulus has been extinguish
perceiving a trail of light from a moving sparkler is caused by the persistence of vision
Whole Report Method
procedure used in Sperling’s experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report all the stimuli they saw in a brief presentation
Partial Report Method
procedure used in Sperling’s experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display
a cue tone immediately after the display indicated which part of the display to report
Delayed Partial Report Method
procedure used in Sperling’s experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display
a cue tone that was delayed for a fraction of a second after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report
Decays
process by which information is lost from memory due to the passage of time
Iconic Memory
brief sensory memory for visual stimuli that lasts for a fraction of a second after a stimulus is extinguished
this corresponds to the sensory memory stage of the modal model of memory
Echoic Memory
brief sensory memory for auditory stimuli that lasts for a few seconds after a stimulus is extinguished
Short-Term Memory (STM)
a memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, usually around 30 seconds, unless there is rehearsal (such as repeating a telephone number) to maintain the information in short-term memory
one of the stages in the modal model of memory
Recall
subjects are asked to report stimuli they have previously seen or heard
Digit Span
the number of digits a person can remember
digit span is used as a measure of the capacity of short-term memory
Chunking
combining small units into larger ones, such as when individual words are combined into a meaningful sentence
chunking can be used to increase the capacity of memory
Chunk
used in connection with the idea of chunking in memory
a chunk is a collection of elements that are strongly associated with each other but weakly associated with elements in other chunks
Working Memory
a limited-capacity system for temporary stage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
Phonological Loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
Phonological Store
component of the phonological loop of working memory that holds a limited amount of verbal and auditory information for a few seconds
Articulatory Rehearsal Process
rehearsal process involved in working memory that keeps items in the phonological store from decaying
Visuospatial Sketch Pad
the part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information
Central Executive
the part of working memory that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad
the “traffic cop” of the working memory system
Phonological Similarity Effect
an effect that occurs when letters or words that sound similar are confused
for example, T and P are two similar-sounding letters that could be confused
Word Length Effect
the notion that it more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words
Articulatory Suppression
interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as “the” while carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop
Visual Imagery
a type of mental imagery involving vision, in which an image is experienced in the absence of a visual stimulus
Mental Rotation
rotating an image of an object in the mind
Perseveration
difficulty in switching from one behavior to another, which can hinder a person’s ability to solve problems that require flexible thinking
perseveration is observed in cases in which the prefrontal cortex has been damaged
Episodic Buffer
a component added to Baddeley’s original working memory model that serves as a “backup” store that communicates with both long-term memory and the components of working memory
it holds information longer and has greater capacity than the phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad
Delayed-Response Task
a task in which information is provided, a delay is imposed, and then memory is tested
this task has been used to study short-term memory by testing monkeys’ ability to hold information about the location of a food reward during a delay
Activity-Silent Working Memory
short-term changes in neural network connectivity that has been hypothesized as a mechanism for holding information in working memory
Reading Span Test
the test used by Daneman and Carpenter to measure reading span
Reading Span
measure used by Daneman and Carpenter to determine individual differences in working memory
it is the number of 13- to 16- word sentences that a person can read and then correctly remember the last words of all the sentences
Event-Related Potential (ERP)
an electrical potential, recorded with disc electrodes on a person’s scalp, that reflects the response of many thousands of neurons near the electrode that fire together
the ERP consists of a number of waves that occur at different delays after a stimulus is presented and that can be linked to different function
for example, the N400 wave occurs in response to a sentence that contains a word that doesn’t fit the meaning of the sentence
What is memory?
processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present
active any time some past experience has an impact on how you think or behave now or in the future
What are the three different types of memory?
sensory memory
short-term memory
long-term memory
What is sensory memory?
initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second
What is short-term memory?
holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds
What is long-term memory?
can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades
What are control processes?
active processes hat can be controlled by the person
rehearsal
strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable
strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli
What is sensory memory?
the retention, for brief period of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation
information decays very quickly
holds large information for a short period of time
collects information, holds information for initial processing, fills in the blanks
What is the persistence of vision?
retention of the perception of light
sparkler’s trail of light
frames in a film
What was the Sperling (1960) study on sensory memory?
measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory
array of letters flashed quickly on a screen
participants asked to report as many as possible
What is the whole report method?
participants asked to report as many as could be seen
What is the partial report method?
participants heard tone that told them which row of letters to report
average of 3.3 out of 4 letters (82%)
participants could report any of the rows
What is the delayed report method?
presentation of tone delayed for fraction of a second after the letters were extinguished
performance decreases rapidly
What is iconic memory?
brief sensory memory of the things that we see
responsible for persistence of vision
What is echoic memory?
brief sensory memory of the things that we hear
responsible for persistence of sound
How is the duration of short-term memory?
read three letters, then a number
begin counting backwards by threes
after a set time, recall three letters
What is the procedure of the Brown-Peterson CogLab?
on each trial of the experiment, you saw three letters (a trigram) for two seconds
you were then given a letter string classification (word or nonword) distractor task
after the distractor task, you were asked to recall the trigram
What is proactive interference?
occurs when information learned previously interferes with learning new information
example: your native language may make it more difficult to learn and remember a new foreign language
What is retroactive interference?
occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning
example: after you get a new telephone number and use it for a while, you may have difficulty remembering your old phone number
What is digit span?
how many digits a person can remember
typical result: 5-8 items
What is the procedure of the memory span Coglab?
this experiment allows you to measure your memory span for a variety of stimulus types
on each trial, you saw a list of items presented one at a time in random order and were asked to recall the items in the same order in which they were presented
if you got a list correct, the list length increased by 1 for that type of material
if you got a list incorrect, the list length decreased by 1
What is chunking?
small units can be combined into larger meaningful units
What is a chunk?
collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks
What is working memory?
limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
is set up to process different types of information simultaneously
has trouble when similar types of information are presented at the same time
How does the working memory differ from short-term memory?
short-term memory holds information for a brief period of time
working memory is concerned with the processing and manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition
What is phonological similarity effect?
letters or words that sound similar are confused
What is the word-length effect?
memory for lists of words is better for shirt words than for long words
takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall
What is articulatory suppression?
prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered
reduces memory span
eliminates word-length effect
reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words
What are the two parts of the phonological loop?
the phonological store
the articulatory control process
What is the phonological store?
is a memory store that can retain speech-based (phonological) information for a short period of time
unless rehearsed, the traces within the store are assumed to fade and decay within about 2 seconds, after which they are no longer unstable
What is the articulatory control process?
responsible for two different functions
it translates visual information into a speech-based code and deposits it in the phonological store; and it refreshes a trace in the phonological store, offsetting the decay process
What was the procedure of the phonological similarity effect Coglab?
when people are asked to recall a list of items, their performance is usually worse when the items sound similar than when the items sound different
“F” was most often misidentified as “S” or “X”
What is the word-length effect?
memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words
takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall
What is visual imagery?
the creation of visual images in the absence of a physical visual stimulus
What is the Brooks (1968) experiment on the visuospatial sketch pad?
memorize sentences and then consider each word (mentally)
response is either;
phonological: say “yes” if it is a noun and “no” if it is not
visuospatial: point to Y if word is a noun and N if word is not
speaking was easier than pointing
task (visualize a capital letter) involved the visuospatial sketch pad
pointing response involved the visuospatial sketch pad
verbal response involved the phonological loop
conducting two visuospatial tasks overloaded the visuospatial sketch pad
What is the central executive?
attention controller
focus, divide, switch attention
controls suppression of irrelevant information
perseveration: repeatedly performing the same action or thought even if it is not achieving the desired goal
What is an episodic buffer?
backup store that communicates with long-term memory and working memory components
hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad
What is the relationship between working memory and the brain?
prefrontal cortex responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information
monkeys without a prefrontal cortex have difficulty holding information in WM
neurons responded when stimulus was flashed in a particular location and during delay
information remain available via these neurons for as long as they continue firing
What is activity-silent working memory?
activity state: information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
synaptic state: neuron firing stops, but connections between neurons are strengthened
What are the individual differences in working memory?
determined participants working memory: high-capacity WM group and low-capacity WM group
shown either simple or complex stimuli
measured ERP responses
results: high-capacity participants were more efficient at ignoring the distractors
