Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity Flashcards
Problem
a situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
Restructuring
the process of changing a problem’s representation, according to the Gestalt psychologists
restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving
Insight
sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Analytically Based Problems
problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experiences
Functional Fixedness
an effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function
Candle Problem
a problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor, the problem was used to study functional fixedness
Two-String Problem
a problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two string together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time
this task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness
Mental Set
a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past
Water Jug Problem
a problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem
Tower of Hanoi Problem
a problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another
it has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis
Initial State
in problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved
Goal State
in problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved
Operators
in problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution
Intermediate State
in problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states
Problem Space
the initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem
Means-End Analysis
a problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
this is achieved by creating sub-goals and intermediate steps that are closer to the goal
Sub-Goals
in the means-end analysis approach to problem solving
intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal
Mutilated Checkboard Problem
a problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution
Think-Aloud Problem
a procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem
this procedure is used to help determine people’s thought processes as they are solving a problem
Analogy
making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things
Analogical Problem Solving
the use of analogies as an aid to solving problems
typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem
Analogical Transfer
transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem
Target Problem
a problem to be solved, in analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story
Source Problem
a problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution of the target problem
Radiation Problem
a problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body
this problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving
Analogical Encoding
a technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle
this technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems
Trade-Off Strategy
a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another. “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B”
Contingency Strategy
a negotiating strategy in which a person get what he or she wants if something else happens
Analogical Paradox
people find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings
In vivo Problem Solving Research
observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations
this technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department
Experts
person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field
Divergent Thinking
thinking that is open-ended
involving a large number of potential solutions
Group Brainstorming
when people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship
Creative Cognition
a technique developed by Finke to train people to think creativity
Pre-inventive Forms
objects created in Finke’s “creative cognition” experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product
Nine-Dot Problem
a problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
a procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to a battery-powered device that delivers direct current, are placed on a person’s head
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an electrical response recorded from the scalp using disc electrodes
Compound Remote-Associate Problem
a problem in which three words are presented, and the task is to determine one word that when combined with each if these words forms a new word or a phrase
Incubation
the phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a “time-out” from working on a problem
Alternative Uses Task
a task used to assess creativity, in which the person’s task is to think unusual uses for an object
also called the unusual uses task
Executive Control Network (ECN)
a brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks
Daydreaming
mind wandering
Volitional Daydreaming
the act of consciously to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes
Mindfulness
paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment
Meditation
a number of different practices for controlling the mind
Focused Attention (FA) Meditation
a type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath
Opening Monitoring (OM) Meditation
a type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes to mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along
Imagination Network
Kaufman and Gregoire’s (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN)
What is a problem?
an obstacle between a present state and a goal
not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
difficult
What is the Gestalt approach to problem solving?
representing a problem in the mind
What is restructuring?
changes the problem’s representation
sudden realization of the problem’s solution often requires restructuring the problem
What is functional fixedness?
restricting use of an object to its familiar functions
candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports
two-string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight
What is a mental set?
a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
based on a person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)
Water-jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution
What is the problem space
consists of the initial state, intermediate state(s) and the goal state
What are operators?
actions taking the problem from one state to another
there are rules that specify which moves are allowed and which are not
What is a means-end analysis?
reduce differences between initial and goal states
What are subgoals?
create intermediate states closer to goals
What is the mutilated-checkerboard problem?
conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares
easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem
What is think-aloud protocol?
say aloud what one is thinking
shift in how one perceives elements of a problem
What is analogical problem solving?
using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem
What is analogical transfer?
the transfer from one problem to another
source problem to target problem
What is analogical encoding?
comparing two cases that illustrate a principle (structure)
What is an analogical paradox?
it can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world settings
What is in vivo problem solving research?
people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world
advantage: naturalistic setting
disadvantage: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables
What is an expert?
a person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field
experts solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners
experts possess more knowledge about their fields
How do experts solve problems?
experts spend more time analyzing problem
experts are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field
experts are less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems
What is creativity?
innovative thinking
novel ideas
new connections between existing ideas
divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential “solutions”
What is design fixation?
fixated on what not to do as demonstrated by sample
fixation can inhibit problem solving
What is cognitive creation?
technique to train people to think creatively
What are preinventive forms?
ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
What is the default mode network?
incubation: getting ideas after taking “time-out” from working on a problem
What is daydreaming?
volitional daydreaming: purposeful mind wandering
What is solitude?
avoiding distractions, giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning
What is mindfulness?
focused attention meditation: focus on one thing, such as the breath, and return to it when distracted
open monitoring meditation: pat attention to whatever come up and follow it until the next thing
