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PSYCH 258 > Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity > Flashcards

Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity Flashcards

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1
Q

Problem

A

a situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

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2
Q

Restructuring

A

the process of changing a problem’s representation, according to the Gestalt psychologists

restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving

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3
Q

Insight

A

sudden realization of a problem’s solution

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4
Q

Analytically Based Problems

A

problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experiences

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5
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

an effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function

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6
Q

Candle Problem

A

a problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor, the problem was used to study functional fixedness

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7
Q

Two-String Problem

A

a problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two string together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time

this task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness

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8
Q

Mental Set

A

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past

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9
Q

Water Jug Problem

A

a problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem

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10
Q

Tower of Hanoi Problem

A

a problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another

it has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis

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11
Q

Initial State

A

in problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved

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12
Q

Goal State

A

in problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved

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13
Q

Operators

A

in problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution

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14
Q

Intermediate State

A

in problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states

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15
Q

Problem Space

A

the initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem

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16
Q

Means-End Analysis

A

a problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

this is achieved by creating sub-goals and intermediate steps that are closer to the goal

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17
Q

Sub-Goals

A

in the means-end analysis approach to problem solving

intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal

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18
Q

Mutilated Checkboard Problem

A

a problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution

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19
Q

Think-Aloud Problem

A

a procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem

this procedure is used to help determine people’s thought processes as they are solving a problem

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20
Q

Analogy

A

making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things

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21
Q

Analogical Problem Solving

A

the use of analogies as an aid to solving problems

typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem

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22
Q

Analogical Transfer

A

transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem

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23
Q

Target Problem

A

a problem to be solved, in analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story

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24
Q

Source Problem

A

a problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution of the target problem

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25
Q

Radiation Problem

A

a problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body

this problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving

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26
Q

Analogical Encoding

A

a technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle

this technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems

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27
Q

Trade-Off Strategy

A

a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another. “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B”

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28
Q

Contingency Strategy

A

a negotiating strategy in which a person get what he or she wants if something else happens

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29
Q

Analogical Paradox

A

people find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings

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30
Q

In vivo Problem Solving Research

A

observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations

this technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department

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31
Q

Experts

A

person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field

32
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

thinking that is open-ended

involving a large number of potential solutions

33
Q

Group Brainstorming

A

when people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship

34
Q

Creative Cognition

A

a technique developed by Finke to train people to think creativity

35
Q

Pre-inventive Forms

A

objects created in Finke’s “creative cognition” experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product

36
Q

Nine-Dot Problem

A

a problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line

37
Q

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

A

a procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to a battery-powered device that delivers direct current, are placed on a person’s head

38
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

an electrical response recorded from the scalp using disc electrodes

39
Q

Compound Remote-Associate Problem

A

a problem in which three words are presented, and the task is to determine one word that when combined with each if these words forms a new word or a phrase

40
Q

Incubation

A

the phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a “time-out” from working on a problem

41
Q

Alternative Uses Task

A

a task used to assess creativity, in which the person’s task is to think unusual uses for an object

also called the unusual uses task

42
Q

Executive Control Network (ECN)

A

a brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks

43
Q

Daydreaming

A

mind wandering

44
Q

Volitional Daydreaming

A

the act of consciously to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes

45
Q

Mindfulness

A

paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment

46
Q

Meditation

A

a number of different practices for controlling the mind

47
Q

Focused Attention (FA) Meditation

A

a type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath

48
Q

Opening Monitoring (OM) Meditation

A

a type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes to mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along

49
Q

Imagination Network

A

Kaufman and Gregoire’s (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN)

50
Q

What is a problem?

A

an obstacle between a present state and a goal

not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

difficult

51
Q

What is the Gestalt approach to problem solving?

A

representing a problem in the mind

52
Q

What is restructuring?

A

changes the problem’s representation

sudden realization of the problem’s solution often requires restructuring the problem

53
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

restricting use of an object to its familiar functions

candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports

two-string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight

54
Q

What is a mental set?

A

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem

based on a person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)

Water-jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution

55
Q

What is the problem space

A

consists of the initial state, intermediate state(s) and the goal state

56
Q

What are operators?

A

actions taking the problem from one state to another

there are rules that specify which moves are allowed and which are not

57
Q

What is a means-end analysis?

A

reduce differences between initial and goal states

58
Q

What are subgoals?

A

create intermediate states closer to goals

59
Q

What is the mutilated-checkerboard problem?

A

conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares

easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem

60
Q

What is think-aloud protocol?

A

say aloud what one is thinking

shift in how one perceives elements of a problem

61
Q

What is analogical problem solving?

A

using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem

62
Q

What is analogical transfer?

A

the transfer from one problem to another

source problem to target problem

63
Q

What is analogical encoding?

A

comparing two cases that illustrate a principle (structure)

64
Q

What is an analogical paradox?

A

it can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world settings

65
Q

What is in vivo problem solving research?

A

people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world

advantage: naturalistic setting

disadvantage: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables

66
Q

What is an expert?

A

a person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field

experts solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners

experts possess more knowledge about their fields

67
Q

How do experts solve problems?

A

experts spend more time analyzing problem

experts are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field

experts are less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems

68
Q

What is creativity?

A

innovative thinking

novel ideas

new connections between existing ideas

divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential “solutions”

69
Q

What is design fixation?

A

fixated on what not to do as demonstrated by sample

fixation can inhibit problem solving

70
Q

What is cognitive creation?

A

technique to train people to think creatively

71
Q

What are preinventive forms?

A

ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

72
Q

What is the default mode network?

A

incubation: getting ideas after taking “time-out” from working on a problem

73
Q

What is daydreaming?

A

volitional daydreaming: purposeful mind wandering

74
Q

What is solitude?

A

avoiding distractions, giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning

75
Q

What is mindfulness?

A

focused attention meditation: focus on one thing, such as the breath, and return to it when distracted

open monitoring meditation: pat attention to whatever come up and follow it until the next thing

PSYCH 258 (13 decks)

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