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NEUR 2610 > Chapter 7: How We Study the Brain's Structures and Functions > Flashcards

Chapter 7: How We Study the Brain's Structures and Functions Flashcards

1
Q

who argued that language functions are located in the brain’s frontal lobes at the Anthropological Society of Paris 1861?

A

Ernest Auburtin

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2
Q

who observed a brain-injured patient who lost his speech + only said “tan”, then soon died; injury was found in the ___

A

Paul Broca; left frontal lobe

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3
Q

Broca’s area

A

third frontal convolution of the left frontal lobe

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4
Q

study of the relationships between brain function + behaviour, especially in human

A

neuropsychology

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5
Q

today, measuring brain + behaviour includes:

A
  • noninvasive imaging
  • complex neuroanatomical measurement
  • sophisticated behavioural analyses
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6
Q

scientists can stain sections of brain tissue to identify ___ viewed with a light microscope (low magnification)

A

cell bodies

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7
Q

scientists can selectively stain individual neurons to reveal ___ with a light microscope (high magnification)

A

their complete structure

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8
Q

an electron microscope makes it possible to view ___ in detail

A

synapses

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9
Q

multiphoton imaging can generate a 3D image of ___

A

living tissue

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10
Q

who was able to use light microscopic techniques to divide the cerebral cortex into many distinct zones based on the characteristics of neurons in those zones?

A

Korbinian Brodmann

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11
Q

___ is being used to identify the locations of different receptors on the membranes of cells

A

super-resolution microscopy

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12
Q

who developed a transgenic technique that involves labelling different neurons by highlighting them with distinct colours (Brainbow)

A

Jean Livet

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13
Q

what structure do mammals require for remembering the context in which they encounter information?

A

dentate gyrus (subregion of hippocampus)

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14
Q

preventing the growth of new ___ leads to certain kinds of memory deficits

A

dentate gyrus neurons

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15
Q

___ is important in protein + carbohydrate metabolism

A

corticosterone, a hormone secreted in times of stress

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16
Q

when rats have their adrenal glands removed, it eliminates the hormone ___. without this, neurons in the ___ die

A

corticosterone; dentate gyrus

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17
Q

what was the conclusion of the experiment with ADX rats?

A

dentate gyrus neurons are necessary for contextual learning

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18
Q

study of the biological bases of behaviour in humans + other animals

A

behavioural neuroscience

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19
Q

a major challenge for behavioural neuroscientists

A

developing methods for studying both typical & atypical behaviour

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20
Q

measuring behaviour in humans & lab animals differs in large part because ___

A

humans speak (can ask about symptoms)

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21
Q

the objective study of animal behaviour, especially under natural conditions, which provided the basis for modern behavioural neuroscience

A

ethology

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22
Q

3 neuropsychological tests regarding memory

A
  1. Corsi block-tapping test
  2. mirror-drawing task
  3. test of recent memory
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23
Q

the examiner taps out a sequence of blocks, the block numbers are visible on the examiner’s side of the board but not on the participant’s

A

Corsi block-tapping test

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24
Q

participants’ task is to trace between the 2 outlines of the star while looking only at their hand in a mirror, crossing a line constitutes an error

A

mirror-drawing task

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25
Q

participants’ task is to identify which picture they saw most recently

A

test of recent memory

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26
Q

___ have very large behavioural repertoires, meaning they display a long list of capabilities

A

rats

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27
Q

the rat must find the platform from a # of different starting locations in the pool, the only cues available are outside the pool (in the room)

A

place learning

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28
Q

the rat has already learned that a platform always lies somewhere in the pool, but the rat enters the pool from a different starting location each day

A

matching-to-place learning

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29
Q

the rat must find the platform from a cue on the pool wall

A

landmark

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30
Q

a major problem facing people with stroke is a ___

A

deficit in controlling hand/limb movements

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31
Q

who developed an automated touchscreen platform for cognitive/motivational testing of rodents?

A

Tim Bussey + Lisa Saksida

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32
Q

2 reasons to manipulate the brain to see how behaviour changes

A
  • develop hypotheses abt how the brain affects behaviour
  • develop animal models of neurological/psychiatric disorders
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33
Q

brain manipulation techniques

A

inactivate the brain via
- lesions
- drugs
activate it via
- electrical stimulation
- drugs
- light

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34
Q

the first + simplest technique used for brain manipulation

A

ablate (remove/destroy) tissue

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35
Q

who used ablation in the 1920s to find the site of memory in the brain

A

Karl Lashley

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36
Q

who trained monkeys and rats on various mazes and motor tasks and then removed bits of cerebral cortex, with the goal of producing amnesia for specific memories

A

Karl Lashley

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37
Q

Lashley observed that memory loss was related to ___, and that memory is ___

A

the amount of tissue he removed; distributed throughout the brain, not in any single place

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38
Q

who removed both hippocampi as a treatment for epilepsy?

A

William Scoville and Brenda Milner

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39
Q

why did Lashley never remove the hippocampi?

A

he had no reason to believe the structures had any role in memory

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40
Q

surgical instrument that permits a researcher or neurosurgeon to target a specific part of the brain

A

stereotaxic apparatus

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41
Q

rostral-caudal measurements correspond to the ___

A

y-axis

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42
Q

dorsal-ventral measurements correspond to the ___

A

z-axis

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43
Q

medial-lateral measurements correspond to the ___

A

x-axis

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44
Q

high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is used to help treat ___ as opposed to invasive neurosurgery

A

Parkinsonian tremor

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45
Q

how does high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) work?

A

beams heat tissue

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46
Q

following brain damage, the neuroplastic ability to modify behaviour from that used prior to damage

A

compensation

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47
Q

to avoid compensation following permanent lesions, researchers have also developed temporary + reversible lesion techniques such as ___

A

regional cooling, which prevents synaptic transmission

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48
Q

how does regional cooling work?

A
  • hollow metal coil placed next to a neural structure, then chilled fluid is passed thru the coil, cooling the brain structure to 18C
  • when chilled fluid removed from coil, brain structure quickly warms & synaptic transmission is restored
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49
Q

why is it possible to selectively turn brain regions on/off?

A

the brain operates on both electrical and chemical energy

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50
Q

who was the first to use electrical stimulation directly on the human cerebral cortex during neurosurgery?

A

Wilder Penfield

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51
Q

___ is when animals have the opportunity to press a bar to turn on a current to their lateral hypothalamus, which triggers them to eat

A

electrical self-stimulation

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52
Q

___ affects a neural circuit that involves both eating and pleasure

A

electrical self-stimulation

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53
Q

when the intact cortex adjacent to cortex injured by a stroke is stimulated electrically leads to

A

improvement in motor behaviours

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54
Q

who successfully restored motor deficits in a rat model of Parkinson disease by electrically stimulating a specific brain nucleus?

A

Cam Teskey

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55
Q

neurosurgery in which electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area w/ a low-voltage electrical current to produce/facilitate behaviour

A

deep-brain stimulation (DBS)

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56
Q

in Parkinson patients, DBS to the ___ makes movements smoother, often allowing patients to dramatically reduced their intake of medications

A

globus pallidus in the basal ganglia

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57
Q

___ of the brain is invasive; holes must be drilled into the skull and an electrode lowered into the brain

A

electrical stimulation

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58
Q

procedure in which a magnetic coil is placed over the skull to stimulate the underlying brain; used either to induce behaviour or to disrupt ongoing behaviour

A

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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59
Q

in TMS, when the motor cortex is stimulated, movement is ___, or if movement is in progress, it is ___. Similarly, if the visual cortex is stimulated, the participant sees ___

A

evoked; disrupted; dots of light (phosphenes)

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60
Q

the drug haloperidol, used to treat schizophrenia, reduces ___ function and makes healthy rats ___

A

dopaminergic neuron; dopey and inactive (hypokinetic)

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61
Q

drugs that increase dopaminergic activity, such as amphetamine, produce ___ rats

A

hyperkinetic

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62
Q

exposure to psychomotor stimulants such as amphetamine, cocaine, and nicotine can produce long-term effects on ___

A

the brain’s later placticity

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63
Q

who found that earlier nicotine-enhanced motor learning impaired later motor learning in rats?

A

Claudia Gonzalez

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64
Q

design + construction of biological devices, systems, and machines not found in nature

A

synthetic biology

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65
Q

CRISPR-Cas9 serves as an all-purpose tool for ___

A

cutting the DNA of any cell

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66
Q

the potential impact of CRISPR

A
  • eliminate inherited diseases
  • counter antibiotic-resistant microbes
  • disable parasites
  • improve food security
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67
Q

transgenic technique that combines genetics + light to excite/inhibit targeted cells in living tissue

A

optogenetics

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68
Q

optogenetics is based on the discovery that ___

A

light can activate certain proteins that occur naturally + have been inserted into cells of model organisms

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69
Q

the first opsin used for the optogenetic technique

A

channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2)

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70
Q

when channelrhodopsin (ChR2) is exposed to ___ light, the sodium ion channel opens and immediately depolarizes the neuron, causing ___

A

blue; excitation

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71
Q

stimulation of halorhodopsin (NpHR) with a ___ light activates a ___ pump, hyperpolarizing the neuron and causing ___

A

green-yellow; chloride; inhibition

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72
Q

researches hail optogenetics for its ___

A

high spatial + temporal resolution

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73
Q

transgenic technique that combines genetics + synthetic drugs to activate targeted cells in living tissue

A

chemogenetics

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74
Q

DREADD (designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs) principal advantage:

A

the drug activates only the genetically modified receptors, and the receptors are only activated by the designer drug, not by endogenous molecules

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75
Q

in ___, temporal resolution is much lower than w/ optogenetics because receptors are activated by drugs rather than by light

A

DREADD

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76
Q

4 techniques for tracking the brain’s electrical activity

A
  1. single-cell recording
  2. electroencephalography (EEG)
  3. event-related potentials (ERPs)
  4. magnetoencephalography (MEG)
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77
Q

microelectrodes can be placed next to cells (___), or inside cells (___)

A

extracellular recording; intracellular recording

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78
Q

modern extracellular recording techniques make it possible to distinguish the activity of as many as ___ neurons at once

A

40

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79
Q

___ allows direct study/recording of a single neuron’s electrical activity

A

intracellular recording

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80
Q

2 disadvantages of intracellular recording

A
  1. can kill the cell
  2. cannot be done in awake, freely moving animals
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81
Q

who showed that neurons in the rat + mouse hippocampus vigorously fire when an animal is in a specific place in the environment?

A

John O’Keefe

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82
Q

hippocampal neurons maximally responsive to specific locations in the world

A

place cells

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83
Q

the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to ___ “for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain.”

A

John O’Keefe
May-Britt Moser
Edvard I. Moser

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84
Q

in mice with a genetically engineered mutation that produces deficits in spatial memory, place cells lack ___ as they fire to a ___

A

specificity; very broad region of their world

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85
Q

who discovered in the 1930s that the brain’s electrical activity could be recorded simply by placing electrodes on the scalp, creating “brain waves” (EEG)?

A

Hans Berger

86
Q

graded potentials recorded w/ electrodes placed directly on the surface of the brain (cerebral cortex)

A

electrocorticography (ECoG)

87
Q

EEGs reveal remarkable features of the brain’s electrical activity, such as:

A
  1. behaviour changes
  2. the cortex displays an array of patterns, some rhythmical
  3. the living brain’s electrical activity is never silent, even when a person is asleep or comatose
88
Q

a recorded brain wave’s height

A

amplitude

89
Q

the # of brain waves recorded per second

A

frequency

90
Q

when a person is aroused, excited, or alert, the EEG pattern has a ___ amplitude and a ___ frequency

A

low; fast

91
Q

when a person is calm and relaxed, especially with eyes closed, ___ brain waves often emerge, which are called ___

A

rhythmical; alpha rhythms

92
Q

large, extremely regular brain waves w/ a frequency ranging from 7-11 Hz; found in most people when they are relaxed w/ eyes closed

A

alpha rhythms

93
Q

in humans, alpha rhythms are generated in the region of the ___

A

visual cortex at the back of the brain

94
Q

if a relaxed person ___, the alpha rhythms abruptly stop

A
  • is disturbed
  • performs mental arithmetic
  • opens their eyes
95
Q

only in ___ does the EEG permanently become a flat line

A

brain death

96
Q

EEG is a reliable tool for:

A
  1. monitoring sleep stages
  2. estimating depth of anesthesia
  3. evaluating the severity of head injury
  4. searching for brain abnormalities
97
Q

brief periods of impaired awareness/unresponsiveness + involuntary movements associated w/ spiking patterns in the EEG characterize ___

A

electrographic seizures

98
Q

complex electroencephalographic waveform related in time to a specific sensory event

A

event-related potentials

99
Q

___ are largely the graded potentials on dendrites that a sensory stimulus triggers

A

ERPs

100
Q

one way to detect ERPs

A

produce the stimulus repeatedly + average the recorded responses

101
Q

2 advantages for using ERPs to study the brain

A
  1. noninvasive: electrodes are placed on the scalp, not the brain
  2. cost
102
Q

ERPs can not only detect which brain areas are processing particular stimuli but can also be used to study ___

A

the order in which different regions participate (route)

103
Q

P3 is a hot spot for processing ___

A

visual stimulus

104
Q

ERPs can help reveal which brain areas are most sensitive to ___ & are most closely related to ___

A

aging; declining behavioural functions among the elderly

105
Q

neural activity, by generating an electrical field, also produces a ___

A

magnetic field

106
Q

magnetic potentials recorded from detectors placed outside the skull

A

magnetocephalogram

107
Q

why can MEG yield a higher resolution than an ERP?

A

magnetic waves conducted thru living tissue undergo less distortion than electrical signals

108
Q

major advantage of MEG over EEG/ERP

A

ability to more precisely identify the source of the activity of being recorded

109
Q

major disadvantage of MEG

A

high cost

110
Q

until the early 1970s, the only way to image the living brain was by using ___ to produce ___

A

x-rays; static images of brain anatomy from one angle

111
Q

who developed the computed tomography (CT scan)?

A

Allan Cormack + Godfrey Hounsfield

112
Q

x-ray technique that produces a static 3D image of the brain in cross-section

A

computed tomography (CT scan)

113
Q

how does a CT work?

A
  • x-ray passed thru object at many angles, creating many images
  • images combined to make 3D image
114
Q

the CT method resembles the way our ___ work to perceive ___

A

two eyes; depth/distance to locate an object in space

115
Q

___ tissue, such as bone, absorbs lots of radiation

A

high-density

116
Q

___ material, such as ventricular fluid or blood, absorbs little radiation

A

low-density

117
Q

in CT, dark colours indicate ___ and light colours indicate ___

A

low-density regions; high-density regions

118
Q

the inability to speak fluently despite having average comprehension/intact vocal mechanisms

A

Broca aphasia

119
Q

CT has a resolution appropriate for localizing ___

A

brain tumors + lesions

120
Q

technique that produces a static 3D brain image by passing a strong magnetic field thru the brain, followed by a radio wave, then measuring a radiofrequency signal emitted from hydrogen atoms

A

magnetic resonance imagine (MRI)

121
Q

MRI is based on the principle that ___

A

hydrogen atoms behave like spinning bar magnets in the presence of a magnetic field

122
Q

normally, hydrogen atoms point randomly in different directions, but when placed in a large static magnetic field, they ___

A

line up in parallel

123
Q

in an MRI scanner, radio pulses are applied to a brain whose atoms have been aligned, and each radio pulse forms a ___, which causes ___

A

second magnetic field; the spinning atoms to deviate from the parallel orientation to a new orientation

124
Q

in MRIs, areas with ___ stand out from areas with ___

A

high water content (cell body-rich areas); low water content (axon-rich areas)

125
Q

in an MRI, as each radio pulse ends & the hydrogens realign w/ the static field, they ___ and a ___ detects this realignment

A

emit a tiny amt of energy; coil

126
Q

in an MRI, based on the signals from the coil, a computer ___, producing a magnetic resonance image

A

re-creates the position of the hydrogen nuclei

127
Q

magnetic resonance imaging method that can imagine fiber pathways in the brain by detecting the directional movements of water molecules

A

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

128
Q

DTI easily detects abnormalities such as those that occur in ___

A
  • multiple sclerosis
  • stroke
  • concussion
  • the imaged fiber pathways & their myelin sheaths
129
Q

magnetic resonance imaging method that uses the hydrogen proto signal to determine the concentration of brain metabolites; used to identify changes in specific markers of neuronal function, which is promising for accurate diagnosis of traumatic brain injuries

A

magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

130
Q

MRS is an MRI method that uses hydrogen proton signal to determine the ___ in brain tissue

A

concentration of brain metabolites like N-acetylaspartate (NAA)

131
Q

MRS is useful for detecting abnormalities in brain metabolism in disorders such as ___

A

concussion

132
Q

when a brain region is active, the amt of ___ flowing to the region increases

A

blood, oxygen, glucose

133
Q

3 functional brain imaging techniques

A
  1. functional MRI
  2. optical tomography
  3. positron emission tomography
134
Q

as neurons become active, they use more oxygen, resulting in a ___

A

temporary dip in the blood oxygen level

135
Q

active neurons increase ___ levels, which signal blood vessels to ___, ___ blood flow and bringing more ___ to the area

A

blood carbon dioxide; dilate; increasing; oxygen

136
Q

who discovered that when human brain activity increases, the extra oxygen produced by increased blood flow actually exceeds the tissues needs = amt of oxygen in an activated brain area increases?

A

Peter Fox

137
Q

oxygen is carried on the ___

A

hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells

138
Q

changes in the ratio of oxygen-rich hemoglobin to oxygen-poor hemoglobin alters the blood’s magnetic properties because ___

A

oxygen-rich hemoglobin is less magnetic than oxygen-poor hemoglobin

139
Q

in 1990, ___ showed that MRI could accurately match the changes in magnetic properties to specific brain locations (fMRI)

A

Segi Ogawa

140
Q

magnetic resonance imaging technique that measures brain activity indirectly by detecting changes associated w/ blood flow; often used to measure cerebral blood flow during cognitive testing or resting

A

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

141
Q

functional changes in the brain are inferred from increases/decreases in the MRI signal produced by ___

A

changes in oxygen levels

142
Q

the ___ resolution of fMRI is not as precise as that obtained w/ EEG or ERPs

A

temporal

143
Q

why does fMRI offer good spatial resolution of the brain’s activity source?

A

dense blood vessel supply to the cerebral cortex

144
Q

2 disadvantages of fMRI

A
  • subjects must lie motionless in a long, noisy tube = claustrophobic
  • confined space/lack of mobility restrict the types of behavioural experiments that can be performed
145
Q

magnetic resonance imaging method that measures changes in oxygen when the individual is resting (not engaged in a specific task)

A

resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI)

146
Q

although rs-fMRI is still growing, we have already identified many consistent networks of brain activity/abnormalities in disease states such as ___ where patients have trouble with ___

A

dementia + schizophrenia; performing cognitive tasks

147
Q

a functional imaging technique that operates on the principle that an object can be reconstructed by gathering light transmitted through it

A

optical tomography

148
Q

fNIRS is a form of ___, which can image ___ like the brain

A

optical tomography; soft body tissue

149
Q

in fNIRS, reflected infrared light is used to determine blood flow because oxygen-rich hemoglobin & oxygen-poor hemoglobin differ in their ___

A

absorption spectra

150
Q

___ measure essentially the same thing with different tools

A

fNIRS and fMRI

151
Q
A

fNIRS

152
Q

advantage of fNIRS

A

relatively easy to hook up subjects repeatedly & record them for short periods

153
Q

disadvantage to fNIRS

A

light does not penetrate far into the brain, so researchers are restricted to measuring cortical activity

154
Q

fNIRS has been used to differentiate ___

A

cancerous from noncancerous brain tissue

155
Q

imaging technique that detects changes in blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of compounds such as oxygen or glucose; used to analyze the metabolic activity of neurons

A

positron emission tomography (PET)

156
Q

what imaging method is used to study the metabolic activity of brain cells engaged in processing brain functions such as language?

A

positron emission tomography (PET)

157
Q

how does a PET scanner work?

A
  • small amt of radioactive water injected into subject
  • active areas of the brain use more blood, thus have more radioactivity
  • positrons from radioactivity are released & collide w/ electrons in the brain, producing photons, which exit the head + are detected
158
Q

radioactive 15O molecules release tiny positively charged subatomic particles known as ___, which are ___

A

positrons; electrons w/ a positive charge

159
Q

how are photons produced for PET scans?

A

positrons collide w/ electrons in the brain, annihilating them both, producing energy in the form of two photons

160
Q

explain the subtraction procedure PET researchers use

A

subtract the blood-flow pattern when the brain is in a controlled state from the pattern of blood flow imaged when the subject is engaged in the task

161
Q

PET does not measure local neural activity directly; rather, it ___

A

infers activity on the assumption that blood flow increases where neuron activity increases

162
Q

significant limitation of PET

A

radiochemicals must be prepared in a cyclotron quite close to the scanner bc their half-lives are so short that transport time is a severely limiting factor = expensive

163
Q

3 advantages to PET

A
  1. mapping of a wide range of brain changes/conditions, including changes in pH, glucose, oxygen, amino acids, neurotransmitters, + proteins
  2. can detective relative amounts of a neurotransmitter, the density of neurotransmitter receptors, & metabolic activities associated w/ learning, brain poisoning, + degenerative processes that relate to aging
  3. used to study cognitive function w/ great success
164
Q

PET confirms that various brain regions perform ___ functions

A

different

165
Q

advantage to hybrid scanners

A

can acquire high-quality anatomical images, then overlay the functional/metabolic image info, allowing for precise localization - all within a single examination

166
Q

the simplest way to measure brain chemistry

A

extract tissue postmortem from affected humans or animals & undertake traditional biochemical techniques, like high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

167
Q

dopamine levels fluctuate in the ___ in association w/ stimuli related to rewarding behaviours such as food and sex

A

nucleus accumbens

168
Q

changes in brain chemistry can be measured in freely moving animals using 2 methods:

A
  1. cerebral microdialysis
  2. cerebral voltammetry
169
Q

technique used to determine the chemical constituents of extracellular fluid in freely moving animals

A

microdialysis

170
Q

how does microdialysis work?

A
  • catheter w/ semipermeable membrane tip is placed in the brain
  • fluid flows thru cannula & passes along cell membrane
  • simple diffusion drives extracellular molecules across membrane along their concentration gradient
  • fluid containing molecules from the brain exits thru tubing to be collected for analysis
171
Q
A

microdialysis

172
Q

caudate nucleus & putamen of the basal ganglia

A

striatum

173
Q

if a rat is placed in an environment in which it anticipates sex or favoured food, microdialysis will record an increase in ___ within the striatum

A

dopamine

174
Q

physicians use ___ to monitor changes in the brain after TBI or stroke

A

microdialysis

175
Q

technique used to identify the concentration of specific chemicals in the brain as animals behave freely

A

cerebral voltammetry

176
Q

how does cerebral voltammetry work?

A
  • small carbon fiber electrode + metal electrode implanted in the brain
  • weak current passed thru metal electrode
  • current causes electrons to be added/removed from surrounding chemicals
  • changes in extracellular levels of specific neurotransmitters can be measured as they occur
177
Q

advantage to voltammetry

A

not requiring the chemical analysis of fluid removed from the brain

178
Q

disadvantage to voltemmetry

A

destructive (degradation of chemicals)

179
Q

who used voltammetry to demonstrate that the stress hormone corticosterone induced an increase in the amt of dopamine + how long it was detected in the nucleus accumbens?

A

Wheeler

180
Q

who’s findings proved that stress can potentiate the effect of reinforcers?

A

Wheeler

181
Q

what gene is related to the production of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which stimulates neural plasticity & low levels indicate mood orders like depression?

A

BDNF Val 66Met & BDNF Val 66Val

182
Q

who showed that the Met (BDNF Val 66) allele is associated w/ an 11% reduction in hippocampal volume?

A

Joshua Bueller

183
Q

what is the BDNF Vall 66Met allele associated with?

A

11% reduction in hippocampal volume, poor episodic memory

184
Q

what is the BDNF Vall 66Val allele associated with?

A

better episodic memory, higher incidence of neuroticism/anxiety disorders

185
Q

ADD and ADHD affect ___ of school-aged children

A

4%-10%

186
Q

an estimated ___ of children w/ ADHD still show symptoms in adulthood, where its behaviours are associated with ___

A

50%; family breakups, substance abuse, driving accidents

187
Q

the neurobiological basis of ADD + ADHD is believed to be a dysfunction in the ___, especially in the ___ circuitry

A

noradrenergic or dopaminergic activating system; frontal basal ganglia

188
Q

psychomotor stimulants such as ___ act to increase brain levels of noradrenaline + dopamine are widely used for treating ADHD

A

ritalin (methylphenidate) & adderall (dextroamphetamine)

189
Q

about ___ of children show improvement of attention & hyperactive symptoms with treatment, but do not directly improve academic achievement as ___ of children with ADHD fail to get a high-school diploma

A

70%; 40%

190
Q

Ritalin works by blocking ___

A

dopamine reuptake

191
Q

ADHD is believed to be highly ___, genes relating to the D4 receptor are of particular importance

A

heritable

192
Q

who investigated epigenetic patterns in 40 pairs of identical twins supported the findings of less than 100% concordance for diseases?

A

Mario Fraga

193
Q

who has shown that the amount of maternal attention mother rats give to their newborns alters the expression of certain genes in the adult hippocampus, indicating these genes are related to the infants’ stress response when they are adults?

A

Moshe Szyf & Michael Meaney

194
Q

who examined that epigenetic changes found in the abused suicide victims parallel those found in the rats w/ inattentive mothers, suggesting early experiences can alter hippocampal organization & function via changes in gene expression?

A

McGowan

195
Q

who found that stressing pregnant rats led to wide changes in gene expression in their offspring, in both the frontal cortex & hippocampus?

A

Richelle Mychasiuk

196
Q

___ in postmortem tissue allows detailed analysis of macro + micro structure; identifying brain pathology (Parkinson) can lead to insights about causes/nature of a disorder

A

morphology (structure)

197
Q

2 approaches to research methods

A
  1. morphology (structure) in postmortem tissue
  2. neuron’s electrical activity relating to behaviour or functional changes in brain activity during specific types of cognitive processing
198
Q

practical issues researchers must consider:

A
  1. temporal resolution
  2. spatial resolution
  3. degree of invaseiveness
199
Q

why are MRI-based methods for young children not a good idea?

A

difficulty remaining absolutely still for long periods of time

200
Q

___ are noninvasive & relatively inexpensive @ less than $100,000 each

A

EEG, ERP, fNIRS

201
Q

___ are very expensive @ over $2 million each, thus only found in research centres or hospitals

A

MRI-based methods, MEG, PET

202
Q

the general ___ across mammalian species is remarkably similar, as is the functioning of ___

A

brain organization; basic neural circuits

203
Q

2 important issues for using animal models to develop treatments for brain/behavioural disorders

A
  1. whether animals actually display neurological diseases in ways similar to humans
  2. ethics of using animals in research
204
Q

why is it hard to use animals to model ADHD?

A

they do not go to school, which is where most problems occur for children

205
Q

what rat strain is a good model for ADHD?

A

Kyoto SHR rat

206
Q

4 principles for reviewing experimental/teaching protocols using animals:

A
  1. must promise to contribute to the understanding of principles or development of knowledge that can reasonably be expected to benefit all
  2. optimal standard for animal health/care result in enhanced credibility/reproducibility of results
  3. acceptance of animal use depends on maintaining public confidence to ensure necessary, human & justified animal use
  4. animals used only if there are no alternatives
207
Q

legislation regarding lab animals in the US is set forth in the ___ which includes laws passed by congress in ___

A

Animal Welfare Act; 1966, 1970, 1976, 1985

208
Q

the US Animal Welfare Act includes rats, mice, cats, dogs, primate, and birds but excludes ___

A

farm animals

209
Q

companies using animals for research that do not follow the same process as universities are ___ because ___ - so they use Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards

A

unable to publish the results of their research; journals require that research conform to national guidelines on animal care

210
Q

in the US, the ___ regulates testing of pharmacological and toxic compounds

A

National Institute of Environmental Health Science

NEUR 2610 (8 decks)

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