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NEUR 2610 > Chapter 13: Why We Sleep and Dream > Flashcards

Chapter 13: Why We Sleep and Dream Flashcards

1
Q

a natural rhythm or cyclic changes in behaviour/bodily process

A

biorhythm

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2
Q

the time required to complete one cycle of activity

A

period

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3
Q

biorhythms are defined by their ___

A

periods

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4
Q

circannual rhythms have a period of about ___ (e.g., migratory cycles of birds)

A

1 year

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5
Q

___ have monthly or seasonal periods greater than a day but less than a year

A

infradian rhythms

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6
Q

example of an infradian rhythm

A

human menstrual cycle (28 days)

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7
Q

the menstrual cycle is linked to the cycle of the moon so is also referred to as a ___

A

circalunar cycle

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8
Q

___ have a daily period, (e.g., human sleep-wake cycle)

A

circadian rhythms

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9
Q

___ have a period of less than a day (e.g., human eating cycles)

A

ultradian

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10
Q

___ help living things adapt to the cyclical changes that take place in the environment as a result of Earth’s rotation & orbit in relation to the sun

A

biorhythms

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11
Q

the ___ incline slightly towards the sun for part of the year and slightly away from it for the rest of the year due to ___

A

North & South Poles; the Earth’s axis tilting slightly

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12
Q

the magnitude of day-night changes increases as ___ increases

A

distance from the equator

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13
Q

___ determines seasons

A

the tilt of Earth on its axis

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14
Q

day and night result from ___

A

rotation of Earth on its axis every 24h

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15
Q

migration requires adaptation to changes in:

A
  • length of day & night
  • climate
  • food availability
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16
Q

almost every living organism & every living cell displays ___

A

circadian rhythms

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17
Q

___ change colour in a rhythmic pattern

A

lizards & crabs

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18
Q

the existence of a biological clock was first recognized in 1729 by geologist ___

A

Jean Jacques d’Ortous de Mairan

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19
Q

Jean Jacques d’Ortous de Mairan’s conclusion about plant movement

A

movement of the plant is endogenous, it is caused by an internal clock that matches the temporal passage of a real day

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20
Q

a circadian clock regulates ___ as appropriate to day-night cycles; they also produce ___ effects

A

feeding/sleeping times & metabolic activity; epigenetic

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21
Q

detailed study of biorhythms had to await the development of ___

A

electrical & computer-based timing devices

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22
Q

rat behaviour was first measured by ___

A

giving the animal access to a running wheel for exercise

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23
Q

animals adjust their circadian activities in response to:

A
  • availability of food
  • presence of predators
  • competition within their own species
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24
Q

to determine whether a rhythm is produced by a biological clock, researchers can conduct tests in which they manipulate these conditions:

A
  1. continuous light
  2. light of varying brightness
  3. continuous darkness
  4. light choice of the participant
  5. eating, activity, sleep times all regulated
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25
Q

who first demonstrated that the human sleep-waking rhythm is governed by a biological clock that has a preferred period, where people selected the length of their own day & night?

A

Aschoff

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26
Q

during Aschoff’s experiment, the period of the participants’ sleep-wake cycles lengthened to about ___

A

25-27hrs

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27
Q

rhythm of the body’s own devising in the absence of all external cues

A

free-running rhythm

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28
Q

when light, eating times, temperature, and sleep times are added into an experiment to more closely regulate behaviour, the avg human free-running period is about ___

A

24.1-24.2hrs

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29
Q

the period of free-running rhythms also depends on the ___ of a species

A

light-related biology

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30
Q

environmental event that entrains biological rhythms; German for “time giver”

A

Zeitgeber

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31
Q

___ is the most potent Zeitgeber for many animals, including humans

A

light

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32
Q

to determine or modify the period of a biorhythm

A

entrain

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33
Q

when a Zeitgeber resets a biorhythm, the rhythm is said to be ___

A

entrained

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34
Q

nonphotic Zeitgebers

A
  • temperature
  • activity
  • mealtimes
  • work
  • social events
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35
Q

seasonal affective disorder (SAD) affects ___ of ppl who live in northern latitudes

A

10%

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36
Q

whose findings support an association between altered circadian rhythms & depression?

A

Zhang

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37
Q

because a class of retinal ganglion cells that express a photosensitive pigment called melanopsin are responsive to blue light, it has been proposed that exposure to bright white light that contains this blue frequency can ___

A

reset the circadian clock & ameliorate depression

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38
Q

in ___, the idea is to increase the short winter photoperiod by exposing a person to artificial bright light in the morning or both morning & evening

A

phototherapy

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39
Q

exposure to artificial light that changes activity patterns and so disrupts circadian rhythms

A

light pollution

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40
Q

light pollution has increased w/ the use of ___, in which blue wavelengths are not filtered

A

LED (light-emitting diode) lights

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41
Q

___ account for inconsistent behaviour associated w/ accidents, daytime fatigue, alterations in emotional states, obesity, diabetes, & other disorders characteristic of metabolic syndrome

A

disruptions of the circadian rhythm

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42
Q

adapting to night shifts are difficult & stressful, and increases ___ by ___

A

susceptibility to disease; altering immune system rhythms

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43
Q

people who work night shifts & switch between work/nonwork schedules have higher incidence of ___

A

metabolic syndrome

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44
Q

the difference between a person’s circadian rhythm & the daylight cycle in a new environment can produce ___

A

the disorientation & fatigue of jet lag

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45
Q

fatigue & disorientation resulting from rapid travel thru time zones & exposure to a changed light-dark cycle

A

jet lag

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46
Q

travelling ___ is generally more difficult than east-to-west

A

west-to-east

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47
Q

the ___ biological clock resets in a day, and ___ follow after about a week

A

brain’s; other body organs

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48
Q

persistent asynchronous rhythms generated by jet lag are associated w/ ___

A
  • altered sleep & temperature rhythms
  • fatigue
  • stress
  • reduced success (sports)
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49
Q

who was the first researcher who attempted to locate biological clocks in the brain?

A

Curt Richter

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50
Q

Curt Richter tested wild rats in activity wheels & found that they lost their circadian rhythm after damage to the ___

A

hypothalamus

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51
Q

the ___ acts as the master biological clock, located just above the ___ where the optic tracts cross at the base of the hypothalamus

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN); optic chiasm

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52
Q

evidence for the SCN’s role as a CNS biological clock comes from:

A
  • loss of physical eating, drinking, exercise after brain damage
  • activity of SCN cells during light phases of cycle
  • presence of a pathway from the eye to SCN
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53
Q

evidence for the SCN’s role as a CNS biological clock comes from:

A
  • loss of physical eating, drinking, exercise after brain damage
  • activity of SCN cells during light phases of cycle
  • presence of a pathway from the eye to SCN
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54
Q

although the SCN is considered the brain’s master clock, these 2 structures also have a clocklike role in controlling behaviour

A
  1. intergeniculate leaflet
  2. pineal gland
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55
Q

animals without an SCN can still display ___ and can ___

A

anticipatory behaviour (becoming active in relation to scheduled mealtimes); organize related behaviours, incl. memory for food locations, in relationship to mealtimes

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56
Q

___ can act as a Zeitgeber for the main SCN clock

A

scheduled feeding activity

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57
Q

___ is a property of SCN cells

A

rhythmic activity

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58
Q

the SCN receives info about light thru the ___

A

retinohypothalamic tract

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59
Q

the main source of the retinohypothalamic tract signal comes from ___ that contain the photosensitive pigment ___, which is sensitive to ___ light

A

specialized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs); melanopsin; blue

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60
Q

4 steps of the retinohypothalamic tract

A
  1. SCN drives oscillators + receives signals from other brain/body areas
  2. signal from SCN core neurons entrains shell neurons
  3. retinohypothalamic tract carries info about light changes to core cells in the SCN
  4. photosensitive retinal ganglion cells respond to blue light
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61
Q

melanopsin-containing RGCs also receive inputs from ___

A

cones + rods

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62
Q

one solution to unwanted blue-light stimulation

A

filter out blue light using filters that give light a yellow appearance

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63
Q

melanopsin-containing photosensitive RGCs are distributed across the ___, and in humans they make up between ___ of all RCGs - their axons innervate the SCN ___

A

retina; 1-3%; bilaterally

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64
Q

melanopsin-containing ganglion cells use ___ as their primary neurotransmitter but contain 2 cotransmitters: ___ and ___

A

glutamate; substance P; pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP)

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65
Q

when stimulated by light, melanopsin-containing RGCs are excited, and in turn excite cells in the ___

A

SCN

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66
Q

the SCN contains two parts: a ventrally located ___ that’s activated by the retinohypothalamic tract, and a dorsally located ___

A

core; shell

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67
Q

in the SCN, ___ neurons are not rhythmic, but they entrail the ___ neurons, which are rhythmic

A

core; shell

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68
Q

in addition to receiving retinohypothalamic input, the SCN receives projections from other regions like ___

A
  • intergeniculate leaflet (thalamus)
  • raphe nucleus (serotonergic)
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69
Q

the ___ are pathways thru which nonphotic events can influence the SCN rhythm, such as by arousal, moving about, or feeding

A

intergeniculate leaflet + raphe nucleus

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70
Q

evidence supporting the idea that suprachiasmatic cells are genetically programmed for rhythmicity comes from studies performed in Canada by ___ with the use of ___

A

Martin Ralph; transplantation techniques

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71
Q

rhythms of many, but not all, body organs show restored rhythmic activity following ___

A

suprachiasmatic transplant

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72
Q

two proteins combined into one

A

dimer

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73
Q

a cell’s main clock mechanism is a ___ that paces the clock over a 24h period

A

transcription-translation-inhibition-feedback loop

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74
Q

how does the SCN control biological rhythms?

A
  • light info from photosensitive RGCs entrains the suprachiasmatic nucleus pacemaker
  • pacemaker has a rhythm that drives slave oscillators, which control functions that exhibit circadian activity
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75
Q

the multiple pathways the SCNclock entrains slave oscillators thru

A
  • send axonal connections to nuclei in the hypothalamus + thalamus
  • connects w/ pituitary endocrine neurons
  • sends indirect messages to autonomic neurons in spinal cord to inhibit pineal gland from producing melatonin
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76
Q

the SCN controls these 2 hormones:

A
  1. melatonin
  2. glucocorticoids
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77
Q

the SCN controls the release of ___ from the pineal gland so it circulates during the dark phase of the circadian cycle

A

melatonin

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78
Q

the SCN controls the release of ___ from the adrenal glands so they circulate during the light phase of the circadian cycle

A

glucocorticoids

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79
Q

___ promotes sleep & activates the parasympathetic rest-and-digest system

A

melatonin

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80
Q

___ mobilize glucose for cellular activity to support arousal responses in the sympathetic system

A

glucocorticoids

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81
Q

example of the SCN controlling circannual rhythms

A

hamsters are summertime (long-day) breeders
- as days lengthen, gonads of male hamsters grow & release hormones that stimulate sexual behaviour

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82
Q

melatonin’s effect on reproductive behaviour in ___ is the reverse of the hamster: reproductive activities begin as melatonin release ___

A

sheep & deer; increases

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83
Q

there is no evidence that a melatonin cycle influences the gonads of ___

A

human males

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84
Q

who hypothesized in their book “Biological Clocks in Medicine and Psychiatry” that many physical/behavioural disorders might be caused by an upset in the timing of biological clocks?

A

Curt Richter

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85
Q

the attacks of mental illness displayed by English writer ___ appear to have a cyclic component

A

Mary Lamb

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86
Q

time type; individual variations in circadian activity

A

chronotypes

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87
Q

“lark” & “owl” chronotypes are likely produced by differences in ___ and ___

A

SCN neurons; the genes that influence the clock in those neurons

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88
Q

in hamsters & mice, mutant gene variations produce chronotypes w/ circadian periods as varied as ___

A

24, 20 or 17 hrs

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89
Q

small changes in about __ genes influence the chronotypes that African Americans have shorter ___ than European Americans, due to ancestors living closer to the equator

A

10; free-running periods

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90
Q

circadian rhythms can influence:

A
  • emotional experience
  • learning & retention
  • decision making
  • motivation
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91
Q

we now understand that chronotype changes with ___: many people shift from being ___ owls to being ___ larks

A

age; adolescent; old

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92
Q

Gale and Martyn tested Benjamin Franklin’s maxim ___, and found that neither group was any healthier, wealthier, or wiser than the other

A

“early to bed and early to rise to make a man healthy, wealthy and wise”

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93
Q

Schmidt’s conclusions about performance & time of day:

A
  1. synchrony between time of day & chronotype is a dominant effect (morning people thrive in the morning, vice versa)
  2. highly practiced behaviours are not influenced by time-of-day effects
  3. large differences between old/young ppl related to performance & time of day or related to chronotype
  4. a weakness of studies is that they rely on self-reports of chronotype
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94
Q

“is memory for learned items better when test-restest is given at the same time of the circadian cycle?” refers to ___

A

time stamping

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95
Q

as animals ___ their ability to associate appropriate activity w/ appropriate time declines, impairing their ___

A

age; daily schedule

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96
Q

a strong home advantage in sports likely stems from a ___

A

time-of-day effect

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97
Q

who found heightened emotional responses to stimuli at night, supporting the notion that circadian period influences emotional behaviours?

A

Li

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98
Q

who proposed that the mind must be independent of the body that undergoes sleeping & waking transitions due to lucid dreams?

A

Rene Descartes

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99
Q

contemporary fMRI studies suggest lucid dreaming is especially common in people who display high levels of prefrontal cortex activity in ___

A

Brodmann’s areas 9 +10

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100
Q

what we refer to as “waking” comprises these 3 states:

A
  1. alert consciousness w/o accompanying movement (cholinergic system activity)
  2. consciousness w/ movement is associated w/ additional serotonergic system activity
  3. the peptide orexin plays a role in maintaining waking activity
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101
Q

___ entails 3 stages, while ___ contains 2

A

N-sleep; R-sleep

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102
Q

when one is conscious of being awake during the atonia & visual & emotional features of a dream

A

cataplexy

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103
Q

when one experiences the hallucinations & fears that are common in dreams

A

sleep paralysis

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104
Q

what suggested that eye closure is sufficient to produce the visual components of R-sleep with neither loss of consciousness nor atonia?

A
  • J. Allan Hobson had complete insomnia for 10 days after his stroke
  • whenever he closed his eyes, he had visual hallucinations that had a dreamlike quality
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105
Q

what does the study of sleep tell us about consciousness?

A

a remarkable # of variations of conscious states exist - far more than just sleeping/waking

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106
Q

one measure of sleeping/waking behaviour where people record in a diary when they wake & when they retire to sleep

A

self-report

107
Q

people sleep more when:

A
  • they are young
  • after engaging in physical activity
  • they are pregnant
108
Q

napping is normally best if it is:

A
  • short in duration (less than 20min)
  • happens earlier in the day
  • occurs at schedules times of the day
109
Q

measuring sleep requires recording at least 3 electrical body signals:

A
  1. brain activity
  2. muscle activity
  3. eye movement
110
Q

electrodes pasted onto standard locations on the skull’s surface yield an ___

A

encephalogram (EEG)

111
Q

electrodes placed on neck muscles provide an ___

A

electromyogram (EMG), a record of muscle activity

112
Q

electrodes located near the eyes provide an ___

A

electrooculogram (EOG), a record of eye movements

113
Q

EEGs show distinct patterns of brain-wave activity for sleep states such as:

A
  • awake
  • relaxed
  • drowsy
  • sleep
  • deep sleep
  • dreaming
114
Q

sleep consists of periods when a sleeper is ___ and periods when the ___ twitch

A

relatively still; mouth, fingers & toes

115
Q

who observed that twitching is periodic & is also associated w/ rapid eye movements (REMs) & an awake pattern in the EEG record?

A

Eugene Aserinsky + Nathan Kleitman

116
Q

faster brain-wave pattern displayed by the neocortical EEG record during sleep

A

REM sleep (R-sleep)

117
Q

slow-wave sleep associated w/ rhythms having slower waves + larger amplitude

A

non-REM (NREM) sleep (N-sleep)

118
Q

the American Association of Sleep Medicine’s 5-point classification of sleep

A

W - waking
N1 - NREM stage 1
N2 - NREM stage 2
N3 - NREM stage 3
R - REM

119
Q
A

waking

120
Q
A

N1-sleep

121
Q
A

N2-sleep

122
Q
A

N3-sleep

123
Q
A

R-sleep

124
Q

when a person is awake, the EEG pattern consists of ___ with a ___, or beta rhythm, defined by a frequency of ___

A

small-amplitude waves; fast frequency; 15-30 Hz

125
Q

fast brain-wave activity pattern associated w/ a waking EEG

A

beta rhythm

126
Q

in waking state, the EMG is ___ and the EOG indicates ___

A

active; that the eyes move

127
Q

large, extremely regular brain waves w/ a frequency ranging from 7-11 Hz; found in most ppl when relaxed w/ eyes closed

A

alpha waves

128
Q

humans generate alpha rhythms in __, and abruptly stop if a relaxed person ___

A

the visual cortex at the back of the brain; is disturbed or opens their eyes

129
Q

does everyone display alpha rhythms?

A

no

130
Q

in __ sleep, EEG indicates beta-wave activity give way to low-amplitude, mixed frequency activity, including 4-7 Hz theta-wave activity; EMG remains somewhat active; EOG indicates eyes can be rolling

A

N1

131
Q

in ___ sleep, a person continues to produce theta waves but also produces periodic sleep spindles (brief runs of 11-18 Hz rhythmic waves) + K-complexes, well-defined sharp waves followed by slow waves, all lasting for about half a second

A

N2

132
Q

in ___ sleep, one is difficult to arouse, groggy when aroused, quick to go back to sleep when undisturbed; EEG has larger-amplitude, slow waves (delta rhythms); EMG indicates muscle activity; EOG indicates eyes do not move

A

N3

133
Q

slow brain-wave activity pattern associated w/ deep sleep

A

delta rhythms

134
Q

in ___, EEG displays beta rhythm similar to W/N1 stage; EMG indicates muscles are inactive (atonia); EOG indicates the mouth, fingers & toes twitch

A

R-sleep (REM)

135
Q

reduced muscle tone; condition of maximally low muscle inactivity produced by motor neuron inhibition

A

atonia

136
Q

measures of ___ generally decline during sleep

A

metabolic activity (e.g. body temp)

137
Q

an N-R sequence lasts approx ___ and occurs ___ over the course of the participant’s sleep period

A

90 minutes; 5x

138
Q

___ dominates early sleep periods while ___ dominates later sleep periods

A

N-sleep; R-sleep

139
Q

periods of R-sleep are high in ___, increase during ___, in conjunction with ___, and during ___

A

infancy; growth spurts; physical exertion; pregnancy

140
Q

during ___, body temp declines, heart rate + blood flow decrease, body weight decreases from perspiration, growth hormone levels increase; also when we toss/turn

A

N-sleep

141
Q

___ is a disorder in which ppl experience unpleasant sensations in the legs (creeping, crawling, tingling, pulling) often accompanied by periodic leg movements

A

restless leg syndrome (RLS)

142
Q

RLS affects ___ of the population, and more commonly ___

A

5%; women

143
Q

2 explanations for the twitching of eyes, face & distal parts of limbs in R-sleep

A
  1. such movements help maintain blood flow
  2. brain is developing coordinated movements/tuning the neural circuits
144
Q

who discovered that vivid dreaming occurs during R-sleep in 1957?

A

William Dement + Nathaniel Kleitman

145
Q

research shows that dreams take place in ___

A

real time

146
Q

why does it appear that a dream takes place in a moment?

A

time shrinking is a product of remembering a dream (just like recalling other memories)

147
Q

the first modern treatment of dreams was made by ___ in “The Interpretation of Dreams”, published in 1900

A

Sigmund Freud

148
Q

Freud suggested the function of dreams is the ___ & further proposed that dreams have 2 levels of meaning, ___ and ___

A

symbolic fulfillment of unconscious (sexual) wishes; manifest content (bizarre); latent content (true)

149
Q

Freud pointed out that a dream usually begins with an ___, incorporates ___, & includes ___

A

incident from the previous day; childhood experiences; ongoing unfulfilled wishes

150
Q

who proposed that dream symbolism signifies distant human memories long since lost to conscious awareness?

A

Carl Jung

151
Q

Carl Jung proposed that dreams allow the dreamer to ___

A

relive the history of the human race - our “collective unconscious”

152
Q

J. Allan Hobson’s activation-synthesis theory

A
  • during a dream, the cortex is bombarded by signals from the brainstem
  • produces the pattern of waking EEG
  • in response, cortex generates images, actions & emotions from personal memory stores
  • in absence of external verification, these dream events are fragmented/bizarre
  • only reveals that the cortex is activates
153
Q

Hobson proposed, on the bases of PET imaging, that part of the frontal cortex is ___ active in dreaming than waking

A

less

154
Q

in Hobson’s theory, dreams are personal in that ___, but have no intrinsic meaning

A

memories & experiences are activated

155
Q

who uses content analysis to argue that dreams are biologically adaptive in that they lead to enhanced coping strategies for threatening life events?

A

Anttio Revonsuo

156
Q

what was Revonsuo’s justification about dreams providing strategies for dealing with problems specifically?

A

noted people seldom dream about reading, writing & calculating, even if that fills up their day

157
Q

who suggests that reward-seeking behaviour is as likely to represent a dream’s latent content as avoidance behaviour?

A

Malcolm-Smith

158
Q

do dreams occur in N-sleep?

A

yes

159
Q

when one is aware of their dream as they are dreaming

A

lucid dreaming

160
Q

who argues that daydreams are ordinary & often fun, w/ little of the turmoil of REM dreams, and seem the true opposite of night dreams?

A

Eric Klinger

161
Q

very young children spend a lot of time in R-sleep yet do not report ___ dreams filled with ___

A

complex; emotion/conflict

162
Q

children may experience brief frightening dreams called ___ during N-sleep

A

night terrors

163
Q

findings from sensory deprivation research reveal that when participants are isolated in quiet bedrooms, they spend ___ time asleep

A

less

164
Q

3 contemporary explanations for sleep

A
  1. adaptive
  2. restorative
  3. supportive of memory
165
Q

___ have a long awake time and short sleep time, while ___ sleep the most as they consume most of their food at a single meal

A

prey; predators

166
Q

(ascending) avg time animals spent sleeping per day

A

donkey
human
guinea pig
rat
rabbit
cat
opossum

167
Q

herbivores sleep ___ than carnivores

A

less

168
Q

switching off the ___ during sleep (esp. N-sleep) conserves energy

A

brain

169
Q

recurring cycle of temporal packets (about 90min periods in humans), during which an animal’s level of arousal waxes & wanes

A

basic rest-activity cycle (BRAC)

170
Q

who suggested that animals have a BRAC, and that it can’t be turned off?

A

Kleitman

171
Q

one hypothesis of sleep as restorative

A

chemical events that provide energy to cells are reduced during waking & replenished during sleep

172
Q

in 1965, ___ broke the world record of 260 hrs (11 days) of consecutive wakefulness & reported no ill effects

A

Randy Gardner

173
Q

during his period of sleep deprivation, Gardner ___ & had ___, but these did not last afterwards

A

hallucinated; cognitive/memory lapses

174
Q

sleep deprivation & irregular sleep are associated with poorer ___; the deficit is in maintaining ___

A

cognitive function; sustained attention

175
Q

brief sleep period lasting a second or so

A

microsleep

176
Q

2 effects of R-sleep deprivation

A
  1. increased tendency to enter R-sleep in subsequent sleep sessions
  2. experience R-sleep rebound, showing more than the usual amt of R-sleep in the first available sleep session
177
Q

some evidence suggests that R-sleep deprivation ___

A

weakens the immune system, decreasing resistance to infections + other disease

178
Q

rodent studies suggest R-sleep deprivation reduces ___, esp in the ___, thus ___

A

neurogenesis; hippocampus; impairing memory processes & weakening resistance to stress

179
Q

argument against effects of prolonged/complete R-sleep deprivation

A
  1. virtually all antidepressant drugs suppress R-sleep
  2. lower-brainstem damage = complete loss of R-sleep
180
Q

___ of ppl on antidepressants display R-sleep behavioural disorder, suggesting that some aspects of R-sleep are resistant to the drug

A

6%

181
Q

patients with ___ remained ambulatory & verbally communicative, appearing to live satisfactory without R-sleep

A

brainstem lesions

182
Q

conscious info, autobiographical memories, knowledge of facts

A

episodic memory

183
Q

unconscious processes, motor skills

A

implicit memory

184
Q

the central challenge for sleep-related memory research lies in ___

A

associating the complexity of memory w/ the complexity of brain metabolic & genetic events

185
Q

both naps & a night’s sleep are followed by improved ___

A

memory

186
Q

memory has 3 phases:

A
  1. labile
  2. storage
  3. recall
187
Q

as a memory is encoded, it is fragile & must compete w/ existing memories & the addition of new memories, associated w/ activities of walking, memory is at risk for being abolished

A

labile phase

188
Q

forges a relatively permanent representation of the memory, depends on biochemical/genetic activities that underlie structural changes in the nervous system, which are better formed in sleep

A

storage phase

189
Q

puts the memory to work at some future time & integrates it into existing memory stores

A

recall phase

190
Q

propose that different kinds of memory are stored during different sleep states

A

multiple process theory

191
Q

propose that different features of a memory are improved in different ways during different sleep states

A

sequential process theories

192
Q

propose that brain regions that handle different kinds of memory during waking continue to do so during sleep

A

storage process theories

193
Q

theory based on the idea that sleep allows synapses that have been active during waking to return to a relatively quiet state during sleep

A

synaptic homeostasis memory theory of sleep

194
Q

___ is a major consumer of the brain’s energy + is high during waking activities

A

synaptic activity

195
Q

during sleep, the slow electrical waves, especially the ___, allow synaptic activity to shift to a resting/homeostatic energy-conserving state

A

4-7 Hz theta waves of N1/N2-sleep

196
Q

analogy for the synaptic homeostasis memory theory of sleep

A

cleaning up after working each day so things do not accumulate

197
Q

experiments support the homeostatic by showing that:

A
  • access to N-sleep soon after learning improves memory
  • interference w/ slow-wave activity in N-sleep disrupts memory formation
198
Q

hippocampal neurons maximally responsive to specific locations in the world

A

place cells

199
Q

who found that many hippocampal cells fire when a rat is in a certain location?

A

Gerrard

200
Q

in rats, the correlation of cell activity during N-sleep is similar to that during ___

A

searches for food when previously awake

201
Q

who’s experiment concluded that rule learning in both motor + cognitive domains is strengthened during sleep, including R-sleep?

A

Pierre Maquet

202
Q

who identified a variety of mutations that disrupt memory formation/plasticity + found that memory disruptions decrease after sleep (in fruit fly Drosophila)?

A

Dissel

203
Q

who studied spatial memory formation in chicks in which memories are mainly stored in the right hemisphere?

A

Nelini

204
Q

sleep can survive the removal of the ___

A

pineal gland

205
Q

in ___, only 1 brain hemisphere sleeps at a time

A

dolphins + birds

206
Q

___ recorded cortical EEG from anesthetized cats while electrically stimulating their brainstem, and found that large, slow waves of typical anesthesia are replaced by ___?

A

Guiseppe Moruzzi + Horace Magoun; low-voltage fast-wave beta EEG typical of waking

207
Q

experiments show that a waking EEG & waking behaviour can be induced from a large neural area running thru the center of the ___

A

brainstem

208
Q

large reticulum (mixture of cell nuclei & nerve fibres) that runs thru the centre of the brainstem; associated w/ sleep-wake behaviours & behavioural arousal

A

reticular activating system (RAS)

209
Q
A
  1. cortex
  2. hypothalamus
  3. reticular activating system (RAS)
210
Q
A
  1. peribrachial area
  2. medial pontine reticular formation
211
Q

prolonged state of deep consciousness resembling sleep

A

coma

212
Q

who sustained RAS damage that left her comatose after taking a minor tranquillizer & having a few drinks, later to be removed from life support after 10 years?

A

Karen Ann Quinlan

213
Q

which 2 brainstem systems influence waking EEG?

A
  1. basal forebrain (ACh)
  2. median raphe (5-HT)
214
Q

how does the basal forebrain influence waking EEG?

A
  • large cholinergic cells secrete ACh onto cortical neurons
  • stimulates waking beta-rhythm EEG
  • alert but immobile behaviour like paying attention
215
Q

how does the median raphe influence waking EEG?

A
  • serotonin (5-HT) neuron axons project to the cortex
  • they stimulate cortical cells to produce a beta EEG
  • physical movement like walking
216
Q

the ___ EEG is responsible for waking associated w/ being alert yet still, whereas the ___ activation is responsible for the waking EEG associated w/ movement

A

cholinergic; serotonergic

217
Q

what happens if both the basal forebrain system & median raphe system are removed?

A
  • can still walk but its EEG resembles a sleeping animal
  • cannot learn/display intelligent behaviour
218
Q

cholinergic nucleus in the dorsal brainstem having a role in R-sleep behaviour; projects to medial pontine reticular formation

A

peribrachial area

219
Q

who selectively destroyed peribrachial cells by spraying them w/ the neurotoxin kainic acid, and found that R-sleep was dramatically reduced?

A

Barbara Jones

220
Q

nucleus in the pons that participates in R-sleep

A

medial pontine reticular formation (MPRF)

221
Q

the peribrachial initiates R-sleep by activating the ___

A

MPRF

222
Q

the MPRF sends projections to excite ___, which activate the EEG recorded from the cortex

A

basal forebrain cholinergic neurons

223
Q

the MPRF excites ___ to produce rapid eye movements & other twitches

A

brainstem motor nuclei

224
Q

the atonia of R-sleep is produced by the ___ thru a pathway that sends input to the ___ just behind it

A

MPRF; subcoerulear nucleus

225
Q

the subcoerulear nucleus excites the ___, which sends projections to the spinal motor neurons to inhibit them so paralysis is achieved during R-sleep

A

magnocellular nucleus of the medulla

226
Q

who observed that cats w/ lesions in the subcoerulear nucleus act out their dreams (loss of atonia) when they enter R-sleep?

A

Michel Jouvet

227
Q

___ of people report ongoing sleep problems, while ___ of people report occasional sleep problems

A

15%; 20%

228
Q

as people age, the amount of people whoo report sleep problems ___

A

increases

229
Q

symptom of a number of disorders characterized by an inability to fall asleep/stay asleep

A

insomnia

230
Q

disorder of falling asleep at inappropriate times, or a difficulty staying awake

A

hypersomnia

231
Q

currently the International Classification of Sleep Disorders has ___ categories of sleep disorders

A

6

232
Q

common causes of sleep disorders

A
  • stress
  • long work hours
  • irregular lifestyle
  • light pollution
233
Q

anxiety & depression account for ___ of insomnias

A

35%

234
Q

although sleeping pills promote ___, they deprive the user of ___

A

N-sleep; R-sleep

235
Q

syndrome in which patients unsuccessfully attempt to sleep by increasing their drug dosage

A

drug dependence insomnia

236
Q

almost complete inability to sleep that contributes to death after a number of months; caused by gene mutation of PRNP gene on chromosome 20; no treatment

A

fatal familial insomnia

237
Q

symptoms of fatal familial insomnia

A
  • panic attacks
  • paranoia
  • phobias
  • weight loss
  • eventual dementia
238
Q

causes of daytime sleepiness

A
  • poor sleep habits
  • disruptions to circadian cycle
  • jet lag
239
Q

J.S. often fell asleep while sitting still, these bouts consisted of brief spurts of ___ lasting ___; treated with Ritalin

A

N-sleep; 5-10 mins

240
Q

inability to breathe during sleep, causing a sleep to wake up to breathe

A

sleep apnea

241
Q

why is being overweight a contributor to sleep apnea?

A

their respiratory pathways may be constricted

242
Q

sudden infant death may be caused by ____

A

sleep apnea

243
Q

2 things that may cause sleep apnea

A
  1. central sleep apnea: weak neural command to the respiratory muscles
  2. obstructive sleep apnea: collapse/blockage of upper airway
244
Q

a person w/ sleep apnea can breathe as little as __ in a 6-minute period, while a healthy sleeper breathes more than 60x

A

4x

245
Q

obstructive sleep apnea is more common among ___

A

overweight people + snorers

246
Q

treatments for sleep apnea

A
  • weight loss
  • face mask delivering negative pressure to open airway
  • appliance to expand upper airway
  • surgery
247
Q

untreated sleep apnea can lead to:

A
  • high blood pressure
  • cardiovascular disease
  • memory problems
  • weight gain
  • impotence
  • headaches
  • brain damage due to oxygen insufficiency
248
Q

rare condition in which the sufferer has recurring bouts of excessive sleeping

A

sleeping beauty syndrome (Kleine-Levin syndrome)

249
Q

those with sleeping beauty syndrome may experience

A
  • 15+ hr sleep episodes
  • excessive sleep periods longer than 1 week
  • increased urge to eat
  • hypersexuality
250
Q

rare condition w/ symptoms that can include sleep paralysis & cataplexy

A

narcolepsy

251
Q

symptoms of narcolepsy include ___, and their sleep immediately starts with ___

A

mental cloudiness, lack of energy/concentration, memory lapses, depressed mood, extreme exhaustion; R-sleep

252
Q

atonia & dreaming that occur when a person is awake, usually just falling asleep or waking up

A

sleep paralysis

253
Q

almost ___ of students report experiencing sleep paralysis, where atonia is typically accompanied by ___

A

1/3; dread or fear

254
Q

in sleep paralysis, the person is partially in ___

A

R-sleep

255
Q

state of atonia, as in R-sleep, occurring while a person is awake & active; linked to strong emotional stimulation

A

cataplexy

256
Q

if someone quickly loses muscles tone & falls to the floor after being excited or laughing, they most likely are in ___

A

cataplexy

257
Q

dreamlike event occurring as sleep begins or while a person is in a state of cataplexy

A

hypnogogic hallucinations

258
Q

in 1970, ___ found that narcolepsy is transmitted as a recessive trait thru the use of dogs

A

William Dement

259
Q

who found the cause of narcolepsy in dogs?

A

Jerome Siegel

260
Q

what causes narcolepsy in dogs?

A
  • neurons in subcoerulear nucleus of brainstem become inactive
  • neurons in magnocellular nucleus of medulla become active during attacks of cataplexy (like R-sleep)
  • neuronal loss in hypothalamus + amygdala
261
Q

the peptide neurotransmitter ___ serves as a signalling molecule to maintain wakefulness

A

orexin (hypocretin)

262
Q

how do orexin cells in the hypothalamus work?

A

send projections similar to other brain regions in similar ways to using acetylcholine and serotonin

263
Q

what confirmed that orexin loss is related to narcolepsy?

A

mice that lack orexin become active and collapse into cataplexy

264
Q

people who display R-sleep behavioural disorder behave as though they are ___

A

acting out their dreams

NEUR 2610 (8 decks)

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