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NEUR 2610 > Chapter 6: How Drugs and Hormones Influence Behaviour > Flashcards

Chapter 6: How Drugs and Hormones Influence Behaviour Flashcards

1
Q

substances that act to alter mood, thought or behaviour; is used to manage neuropsychological illness, may be taken recreationally

A

psychoactive drugs

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2
Q

the way a drug enters and passes through the body to reach its target

A

route of administration

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3
Q

5 ways drugs can be administered

A
  • orally
  • inhaled into the lungs
  • rectally in a suppository
  • absorbed from patches applied to the skin or mucous membranes
  • injected into the bloodstream, muscle, or brain
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4
Q

injecting a drug directly into the brain allows it to ___ because ___

A

act quickly in low doses; it encounters few barriers

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5
Q

taking drugs ___ is the safest, easiest and most convenient way to administer them

A

orally

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6
Q

drugs that are weak acids pass from the ___ into the ___

A

stomach; bloodstream

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7
Q

drugs that are weak bases pass from the ___ to the ___

A

intestines; bloodstream

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8
Q

drugs injected into ___ encounter more barriers than do drugs inhaled

A

muscle

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9
Q

drugs ___ encounter few barriers en route to the brain

A

inhaled into the lungs

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10
Q

drugs ___ encounter the fewest barriers to the brain but must be hydrophilic

A

injected into the bloodstream

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11
Q

drugs ___ are absorbed thru the skin and into the bloodstream

A

contained in adhesive patches

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12
Q

drugs in __ form are absorbed more readily, while drugs in ___ form are not absorbed unless the stomach’s gastric juices can dissolve them

A

liquid; solid

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13
Q

the drug is diluted by the approx. ___ of blood that circulate an adult body, and when it leaves the bloodstream, the body’s roughly ___ of extracellular fluid further dilute it

A

6 litres; 35 litres

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14
Q

with each obstacle eliminated en route to the brain, a drug’s dosage can be reduced by a factor of __

A

10

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15
Q

drugs that are prepared for ___ are much cheaper per dose because ___

A

inhalation or intravenous injection; the amount required is so much smaller than that needed for an effective oral dose

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16
Q

the body’s barriers to internal movement of drugs

A
  • cell membranes
  • capillary walls
  • placenta
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17
Q

why is the passage of drugs across capillaries in the brain difficult?

A

the blood-brain barrier blocks passage of most water-soluble substances

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18
Q

___ can compromise the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, letting ___ through

A

injury or disease; pathogens

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19
Q

none of the brain’s neurons are farther than ___ from a capillary

A

50 micrometers

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20
Q

brain capillaries are composed of a single layer of ___

A

endothelial cells

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21
Q

how are endothelial cells in the body different from those in the brain?

A
  • in the body endothelial cells in capillary walls are not fused, so substances can pass through the clefts between the cells
  • in the brain, endothelial cell walls are fused to form tight junctions, so molecules of most substances cannot squeeze between them
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22
Q

endothelial cells of brain capillaries are surrounded by ___

A

the end feet of astrocytes attached to/covering most of the capillary wall

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23
Q

___ provide a route from the exchange of food/waste between capillaries + the brain’s extracellular fluid

A

astrocytes

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24
Q

3 barrier-free brain sites

A
  1. pineal gland
  2. pituitary gland
  3. area postrema
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25
Q

entry of chemicals that affect day-night cycles

A

pineal gland

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26
Q

entry of chemicals that influence pituitary hormones

A

pituitary gland

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27
Q

entry of toxic substances that induce vomiting

A

area postrema

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28
Q

molecules of vital substances cross the blood-brain barrier in 2 ways

A
  1. small molecules like O2, CO2 & lipid-soluble molecules can pass through endothelial membranes
  2. complex molecules of glucose, amino acids & other foods are carried across the membrane by active transport systems or ion pumps
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29
Q

after a drug is administered, the body begins to break it down through ___, which takes place in ___, then excretes the drug

A

catabolism; kidneys, liver, intestines

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30
Q

the ___ has a family of enzymes involved in drug catabolism called the ___

A

liver; cytochrome P450 enzyme family

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31
Q

substances that cannot be catabolized/excreted can build up in the body and become ___

A

toxic

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32
Q

the metal ___ is not easily eliminated and can produce ___

A

mercury; severe neurological effects

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33
Q

why are metabolized drugs discharged into the environment an issue?

A
  • substances often reingested by many other animals
  • may affect fertility, development in high-risk groups such as embryos/juveniles, and physiology/behaviour of adult organisms
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34
Q

the 5 major steps in neurotransmission at a synapse - each a potential site of drug action

A
  1. synthesis
  2. packaging/storing
  3. release
  4. receptor interaction
  5. inactivation by reuptake or degradation
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35
Q

substance that enhances neurotransmitter function

A

agonists

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36
Q

substance that blocks neurotransmitter function

A

antagonists

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37
Q

ACh ___ excite muscles, increasing muscle tone, whereas ACh ___ inhibit muscles, decreasing muscle tone

A

agonists; antagonists

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38
Q

Black widow spider venom acts as an ___ by promoting ___ release to excess

A

agonist; ACh

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39
Q

botulinum toxin acts as an ___ by blocking ___ release

A

antagonist; ACh

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40
Q

medical uses of botulin

A
  • can selectively paralyze muscle, blocking excessive muscular twitches or contractions, including spasms that make movement difficult in cerebral palsy
  • cosmetically used to paralyze facial muscles that cause wrinkling
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41
Q

Curare acts as an ACh ___

A

antagonist

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42
Q

nicotine acts as an ACh ___ by ___

A

agonist; fitting into its receptors’ binding sites and opens the ion channel

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43
Q

hunters in South America did not poison themselves from the curare in their catch because ___

A

ingested curare cannot pass from the gut into the body

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44
Q

___ muscles are more sensitive to curare-like drugs than are respiratory muscles

A

skeletal

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45
Q

___ inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme that breaks down ACh, thus increasing the amount available in the synapse

A

physostigmine & organophosphate agonists

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46
Q

___, obtained from an African bean, is also used as a poison by hunters

A

physostigmine

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47
Q

large doses of physostigmine can be toxic because ___

A

they produce excessive excitation of the neuromuscular synapse, disrupting movement and breathing

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48
Q

in small doses, ___ is used to treat myasthenia gravis

A

physostigmine

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49
Q

many insecticides and chemical weapons are ___

A

organophosphates

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50
Q

insects use glutamate as a neurotransmitter at the nerve-muscle junction, but elsewhere in their nervous system they have ___

A

nicotinic receptors

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51
Q

___ poison insects by acting centrally, but poison chordates by acting peripherally as well

A

organophosphates

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52
Q

the government of Syria used ___ in 2013 and 2017 on its own citizens

A

the lethal nerve gas Sarin, a potent organophosphate agent

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53
Q

___ can readily pass the blood-brain barrier, while ___ cannot

A

physostigmine & nicotine; curare

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54
Q

physostigmine-like drugs have beneficial effects for ___

A

memory disorders

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55
Q

decrease in response to a drug with the passage of time

A

tolerance

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56
Q

who conducted an experiment on tolerance in a prison

A

Harris Isbell

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57
Q

conclusion of Isbell’s tolerance experiment

A

much more alcohol was required to obtain the same level of intoxication that was produced at the beginning due to tolerance

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58
Q

3 kinds of tolerance

A
  1. metabolic
  2. cellular
  3. learned
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59
Q

the # of enzymes needed to break down alcohol in the liver, blood and brain increases, resulting in alcohol consumed being metabolized more quickly + blood alcohol levels falling

A

metabolic tolerance

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60
Q

brain cell activities adjust to minimize the effects of alcohol in the blood; can help explain why behavioural signs of intoxication may be so low despite a relatively high blood alcohol level

A

cellular tolerance

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61
Q

explains a drop in outward signs of intoxication; as people learn to cope w/ the demands of living under the influence of alcohol, they may no longer appear intoxicated

A

learned tolerance

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62
Q

who experimented on rats to observe learned alcohol tolerance?

A

John Wenger

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63
Q

what was the conclusion of Wenger’s experiment on alcohol and rats?

A

with motor experience, animals can learn to compensate for being intoxicated

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64
Q

___ develops with repeated drug use, while ___ is more likely to develop with intermittent use

A

tolerance; sensitization

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65
Q

who used rats to observe drug sensitization?

A

Terry Robinson and Jill Becker

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66
Q

the neural basis of sensitization lies in part in changes at the ___

A

synapse

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67
Q

studies on the dopamine synapse after sensitization to amphetamine show more dopamine in the ___ in sensitized animals

A

synaptic cleft

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68
Q

sensitization can be associated with changes in:

A
  • # of receptors
  • rate of transmitter metabolism
  • transmitter reuptake
  • # /size of synapses
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69
Q

who administered flupentixol to rats to influence their performance in swim tests?

A

Ian Whishaw

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70
Q

who gave amphetamine to rats with a home group showing no sensitization and an out-group showing robust sensitization?

A

Sabina Fraioli

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71
Q

sensitization is relevant in 3 ways to understanding psychopharmacological effects of drugs

A
  1. many drug therapies must be taken for several weeks before they produce beneficial effects
  2. sensitization is related to drug dependence
  3. life experience, especially stressful ones, can produce effects resembling sensitization that prime the nervous system for addiction
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72
Q

behaviour in which non-human animals self-medicate

A

zoopharmacognosy

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73
Q

offers a classification system for diagnosing neurological/behavioural disorders

A

DSM (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders)

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74
Q

caffeine drinks are consumed daily by about __% of adults in the US

A

85

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75
Q

a cup of coffee contains about ___ of caffeine & some energy drinks as much as ___ of caffeine

A

100mg; 500mg

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76
Q

caffeine has a very similar structure to ___ and binds to its receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the effect of it and acting as an ___

A

adenosine; adenosine antagonist

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77
Q

endogenous adenosine induces ___ and caffeine works in opposition, making us feel ___

A

drowsiness; more alert/peppy

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78
Q

___ inhibits an enzyme that breaks down the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), leading to increased ___ production, making more ___ available and allowing higher rates of ___

A

caffeine; glucose; energy; cellular activity

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79
Q

caffeine promotes the release of other neurotransmitters such as ___, which stimulates effects that improve ___

A

dopamine & acetylcholine; reaction time, wakefulness, concentration and motor coordination

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80
Q

withdrawal symptoms are avoided by continuing to consume caffeine daily but will fade in about ___ days if given up altogether

A

4-7

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81
Q

caffeine is found in ___

A

the seeds/nuts/leaves/nectar of plants native to East Asia + South America

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82
Q

___ acts as a natural pesticide, discouraging/killing herbivorous ___ & inhibiting the invasion/colonization of ___

A

caffeine; insects; pathogenic fungi

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83
Q

nicotine is found in the leaves of the tobacco plant ___

A

nicotiana tabacum

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84
Q

___ is found in small amounts in potatoes, tomatoes and eggplant

A

nicotine

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85
Q

at low doses, nicotine is a ___, but at very high doses, it dampens ___

A

stimulant; neuronal activity

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86
Q

tobacco smokers report feelings of ___

A

relaxation, sharpness, calmness, alertness

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87
Q

when smoke from a tobacco cigarette is inhaled, within a few seconds nicotine stimulates ___ receptors, which then indirectly causes the release of ___

A

acetylcholine nicotinic; acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, arginine vasopressin, serotonin, endorphins, dopamine

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88
Q

smoking cessation leads to ___

A

heightened anxiety, irritability, craving, inability to feel pleasure, and tremors

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89
Q

the total amt of nicotine in one cigarette, if injected, can be ___

A

lethal

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90
Q

respiratory diseases, lung cancer, and related negative effects are caused by ___ rather than in nicotine itself

A

the harmful chemicals found in tobacco smoke

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91
Q

the long-term health effects of e-cigarettes are likely ___ serious than those of tobacco smoke but are unknown

A

less

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92
Q

while smoking is a risk factor for ___, cholinergic ___ are medically prescribed to treat it

A

Alzheimer’s; agonists

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93
Q

acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as ___, raise ACh levels and may provide a small benefit to Alzheimer disease

A

tacrine (Cognex)

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94
Q

at low doses, GABAergic agonists ___; at medium doses, they ___; at high doses, they ___; at very high doses, they ___

A

reduce anxiety; sedate; anesthetize/induce coma; can kill

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95
Q

the GABAa receptor contains a site where ___ binds, another separate site where ___ binds, another site where ___ bind, and a ___ channel

A

GABA; alcohol; benzodiazepines; chloride ion

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96
Q

sedative-hypnotic drugs (alcohol) increase ___ binding, thereby ___

A

GABA; maximizing the time the pore is open

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97
Q

antianxiety drugs (benzodiazepines) influence ___

A

the frequency of pore opening

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98
Q

because their different actions summate, ___ and ___ should not be taken together

A

sedative-hypnotic drugs (alcohol) + antianxiety drugs (benzodiazepines)

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99
Q

due to the influx of Cl- and hyperpolarization of the cell membrane, GABA produces its inhibitory effect by ___

A

decreasing a neuron’s firing rate

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100
Q

benzodiazepines are a class of chemicals that include ___ and are medically prescribed to

A
  • diazepam (valium)
  • alprozolam (xanax)
  • clonazepam (Klonopin)

reduce anxiety

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101
Q

a characteristic feature of benzodiazepine drugs is that a user who takes repeated doses develops a ___ for them

A

tolerance

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102
Q

___ results from when the tolerance for one drug, like benzodiazepines, is carried over to a different member of the drug group

A

cross-tolerance

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103
Q

the fermentation of sugar into alcohol dates back to ___

A

at least 9000 years

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104
Q

alcohol consumption has short-term psychological/physiological effects that depend on factors like ___

A
  • amt & concentration of alochol
  • duration over which it is consumed
  • amt of food eaten
  • consumer’s weight
  • consumer’s experience w/ alcohol
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105
Q

small amts of alcohol typically cause an overall

A
  • improvement in mood
  • possible euphoria
  • increased self-confidence & sociability
  • decreased anxiety
  • impaired judgement & fine muscle coordination
  • flushing of the face
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106
Q

medium doses of alcohol result in

A
  • lethargy
  • sedation
  • balance problems
  • blurred vision
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107
Q

high doses of alcohol lead to

A
  • profound confusion
  • slurred speech
  • staggering
  • dizziness
  • vomiting
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108
Q

very high doses of alcohol cause

A
  • stupor
  • memory loss
  • unconsciousness
  • life-threatening respiratory depression
  • inhalation of vomit
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109
Q

long-term and frequent consumption of alcohol can lead to ___

A
  • increased risk of alcoholism
  • enormous economic burden
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110
Q

alcoholism costs ___ in the US alone

A

$249 billion

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111
Q

alcoholics are often ___ and typically have ___

A

malnourished; elevated levels of chronic pancreatitis, liver disease, cancer

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112
Q

alcoholism results in

A

damage to the central & peripheral nervous systems, as well as nearly every other system and organ in the body

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113
Q

drugs that act on GABA receptors also affect ___

A

brain development

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114
Q

range of physical and intellectual impairments observed in some children born to alcoholic parents

A

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

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115
Q

children with FASD have

A
  • wide spacing between their eyes
  • small size with abnormal gyri
  • abnormal clusters of cells
  • misaligned cells in cortex
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116
Q

FASD behavioural symptoms in children

A
  • learning disabilities
  • low intelligence test scores
  • hyperactivity/other social problems
  • 19x more likely to be incarcerated
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117
Q

prevalence of FASD in the US

A

around 1-10%

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118
Q

women who are most at risk for bearing FASD babies

A
  • poor/uneducated
  • alcohol problems predate pregnancy
  • little access to prenatal care
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119
Q

severity of effects of FASD is related to

A

when/how much/how frequently alcohol is consumed over the course of pregnancy

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120
Q

effects of FASD are worse if

A

alcohol is consumed in the first trimester, a time of organogenesis and highest levels of DNA synthesis

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121
Q

severe FASD is more likely to coincide with

A
  • binge drinking
  • poor nutritional health of mother
  • mother’s use of drugs including nicotine
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122
Q

alcohol use by mothers/fathers before conception can change

A

the methylation status of some genes that contribute to disabilities found on the spectrum

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123
Q

___ of alcohol per day during pregnancy can lead to a decrease in children’s intelligence test scores

A

1 drink

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124
Q

discriminating features of FASD (diagram)

A
  • short palpebral fissures
  • short nose
  • flat midface
  • indistinct philtrum
  • thin upper lip
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125
Q

associated features of FASD (diagram)

A
  • low nasal bridge
  • minor ear anomalies
  • epicanthal folds
  • small jaw
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126
Q

the convolutions characteristic of the brain of a healthy child at age 6 weeks are ___ in the brain of a child with FASD

A

grossly underdeveloped

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127
Q

the glutamatergic system has several receptors, such as

A

NMDA, AMPA and kainate

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128
Q

antagonists for the NMDA receptor, such as ___, can produce hallucinations and out-of-body experiences

A

phencyclidine (PCP/angel dust) and ketamine (special K)

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129
Q

research indicates that PCP inhibits ___ as well as ___, making it a ___

A

nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; dopamine reuptake; dopaminergic agonist

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130
Q

both PCP and ketamine are known as ___, which are ___ because they distort ___

A

dissociative anesthetics; compounds that produce feelings of detachment/dissociation from the environment & self; perceptions of sight/sound

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131
Q

___ is medically prescribed for starting/maintaining anesthesia, as it induces a ___

A

ketamine; trance-like state while providing pain relief, sedation, and memory loss

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132
Q

ketamine is being tested for use in treating

A

major depressive disorder

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133
Q

ketamine’s mechanism of action, as a ___, is different from most modern drugs prescribed to reduce depression, which operate on ___

A

glutamatergic agonist; serotonin & norepinephrine targets

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134
Q

___ is an NMDA antagonist that is prescribed in the treatment of Alzheimer disease to prevent ___

A

mematine (namenda); neuronal loss

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135
Q

recreationally used dopaminergic agonists

A

cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine

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136
Q

medically prescribed dopaminergic agonists

A
  • dextroamphetamine (Adderall)
  • methylphenidate (Ritalin)
  • L-dopa
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137
Q

dopamine antagonists that are medically prescribed for schizophrenia & drug-induced psychosis include ___

A
  • Thorazine
  • Hadol
  • Clozaril
  • Abilify, Aripiprex
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138
Q

indigenous people of ___ have chewed coca leaves to ___

A

Peru; increase their stamina in the harsh environment & high elevations where they live

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139
Q

crack is chemically altered so that it ___

A

vaporizes at low temperatures, then the vapors are inhaled

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140
Q

refined cocaine powder can either be ___

A

sniffed (snorted) or injected

141
Q

who popularized cocaine in the late 1800s as an antidepressant

A

Sigmund Freud

142
Q

how is cocaine a local anesthetic?

A

it reduces a cell’s permeability to sodium ions and so reduces nerve conduction

143
Q

synthetic compound that increases the neurotransmitter dopamine in the synaptic cleft by reversing the dopamine transporter

A

amphetamine

144
Q

how does amphetamine work as a dopamine agonist?

A

prevents dopamine reuptake by reversing the direction of the transporter, allowing dopamine to continue to interact with postsynaptic D2 receptors

145
Q

how does Thorazine work as a dopamine antagonist?

A

occupies site on D2 receptor

146
Q

how was the synthetic compound amphetamine discovered?

A

thru attempts to synthesize the CNS transmitter epinephrine, which also acts as a hormone to mobilize the body for fight or flight in times of stress

147
Q

difference between amphetamine and cocaine (both dopamine agonists)

A
  • amphetamine reverses dopamine reuptake transporter
  • cocaine blocks transporter
148
Q

___ was originally used to treat asthma and sold as inhalers thru the 1940s

A

benzedrine (a form of amphetamine)

149
Q

___ was widely used in WWII to help troops and pilots ___

A

amphetamine; stay alert, increase confidence/aggression, boost morale

150
Q

what is amphetamine marketed as today?

A

a weight-loss aid

151
Q

lifetime prevalence of methamphetamine use in the US once estimated to be as high as __

A

8%

152
Q

___ are medically prescribed to treat ADHD, and the recreational dosage of both is ___ higher than the medically prescribed dosage

A

amphetamine (adderall) and methylphenidate (ritalin); 50x

153
Q

chronic recreational use of amphetamine (Adderall) and methylphenidate (Ritalin) can lead to ___

A

psychosis

154
Q

idea that excess dopamine activity (esp. in frontal lobes) causes symptoms of schizophrenia

A

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

155
Q

since 1955, when dopaminergic antagonists (antipsychotics) were introduced into therapeutic use, resident populations w/ schizophrenia in mental hospitals have ___

A

decreased dramatically

156
Q

incidence of schizophrenia

A

1 in 100

157
Q

___ of those who are homeless and ___ of incarcerated people have mental health issues

A

75%; 50%

158
Q

___ as many mentally ill people were incarcerated vs. resided in mental institutions

A

10x

159
Q

first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs) include drug classes ___, and act mainly by ___

A

phenothiazines + butyrophenones; blocking the dopamine D2 receptor, reducing motor activity + alleviating the excessive agitation of people w/ schizophrenia

160
Q

second-generation antipsychotics include ___ and work by ___

A

clozapine; blocking dopamine D2 receptors + blocking serotonin 5-HT2 receptors

161
Q

long-term use of D2 antagonists can produce unwanted side effects like ___, which is ___

A

tardive dyskinesia (TD); a movement disorder that results in involuntary, repetitive body movements such as grimacing, sticking out the tongue, smacking the lips, rapid jerking movements, or slow writhing movements

162
Q

most serotonergic agonists also have ___ activity

A

adrenergic

163
Q

serotonergic agonists are well known for ___

A

altering perceptions of one’s surroundings, feelings, sensations and images (trips)

164
Q

serotonergic agonist examples

A

natural: mescaline, DMT, psilocybin
synthetic: LSD, MDMA

165
Q

good trips on serotonergic agonists can be pleasurable and are associated with ___

A
  • feelings of joy/euphoria
  • disconnection from reality
  • decreased inhibitions
  • belief that one has extreme mental clarity/superpowers
166
Q

bad trips on serotonergic agonists are associated with ___

A
  • irrational fears
  • panic attacks
  • paranoia
  • rapid mood swings
  • intrusive thoughts of hopelessness
  • wanting to harm others
  • suicidal ideation
167
Q

repeated use of serotonergic agonists can lead to problems with ___, and currently these recreational drugs are ___

A

sleep, mood, memory; illegal

168
Q

__ of the adult US population has major depression at one time

A

6%

169
Q

major depression is diagnosed in ___ as many women as men

A

twice

170
Q

in the course of a lifetime, ___ of US adults may have at least one episode of major depression that lasts for months or longer

A

30%

171
Q

factors attributed to depression

A
  • inadequate nutrition
  • stress from difficult life conditions
  • acute changes in neuronal function
  • damage to brain neurons
172
Q

3 different types of serotonergic agonist drugs prescribed for depression

A
  1. monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
  2. tricyclics
  3. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
173
Q

drug that blocks the enzyme monoamine oxidase from degrading such neurotransmitters as 5-HT, NE and DA

A

monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

174
Q

drug, characterized by its three-ring chemical structure, that blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter proteins

A

tricyclics

175
Q

drug that blocks 5-HT reuptake into the presynaptic terminal and most commonly used to treat depression

A

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

176
Q

why do antidepressants take weeks to develop?

A

they stimulate second messengers in neurons to activate the repair of neurons damaged by stress

177
Q

___ increases the production of new neurons in the hippocampus

A

Prozac (SSRI)

178
Q

most people recover from depression within ___ of its onset

A

1 year

179
Q

of all psychological disorders, ___ is one of the most treatable

A

major depression

180
Q

since the 1950s, depression has been treated with:

A
  1. serotonergic drugs
  2. cognitive-behavioural therapies (CBTs)
  3. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
181
Q

___ can be an acute treatment for patients with major or bipolar depression who are at risk for suicide

A

ketamine

182
Q

several studies show ___ in the suicide rate between children/adolescents who receive SSRIs vs. a placebo

A

no difference

183
Q

why do 20% of patients with depression fail to respond to antidepressant drugs?

A

depression can have many causes that are not treatable by serotonin agonists

184
Q

side effects of antidepressants

A
  • increased anxiety
  • sexual dysfunction
  • sedation
  • dry mouth
  • blurred vision
  • memory impairment
185
Q

any endogenous or exogenous compound that binds to opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects

A

opioids

186
Q

3 sources of opioids

A
  1. isolated (morphine, codeine)
  2. altered (heroin, oxycodone)
  3. synthetic (fentanyl, methadone)
187
Q

2 properties of opioids

A
  • sleep-inducing (narcotic)
  • pain-relieving (analgesic)
188
Q

5 classes of opioid peptides

A
  1. dynorphins
  2. enkephalins
  3. endorphins
  4. endomorphins
  5. nociceptin
189
Q

4 receptors on which each opioid peptide binds to

A
  1. delta
  2. kappa
  3. mu
  4. nociceptin
190
Q

___ most closely mimics endomorphins and binds most selectively to the __ receptors

A

morphine; mu

191
Q

a white milky latex extracted from the seed pods of the poppy, Papaver somniferum

A

opium

192
Q

___, whose primary ingredient is morphine, has been used for thousands of years to produce euphoria, analgesia, sleep, and relief from diarrhea/coughing

A

opium

193
Q

which chemist isolated two chemicals from opium, codeine and morphine, in 1805?

A

Friedrich Sertürner

194
Q

___ is often an ingredient in prescription cough medicine/pain relievers - the liver has an enzyme that converts it to morphine

A

codeine

195
Q

a portion of blond-haired and blue-eyed people lack this enzyme

A

the enzyme that converts codeine to morphine

196
Q

___ alters our perception of pain

A

morphine

197
Q

semi-synthetic opioids, such as heroin and oxycodone, affect __ receptors

A

mu

198
Q

___ is more potent & fat-soluble than morphine and penetrates the blood-brain barrier more quickly, allowing it to produce very rapid but shorter-acting psychoactive affects

A

heroin

199
Q

all opioids are potently ___, and ___ is at a crisis point worldwide

A

addictive; abuse of medically prescribed opioids

200
Q

opioid ingestion produces wide-ranging physiological changes in addition to:

A

altering pain perception, including relaxation and sleep, euphoria, and constipation

201
Q

physiological effects of opioid ingestion

A
  • respiratory depression (primary cause of death)
  • decreased blood pressure
  • pupil constriction
  • hypothermia
  • drying of secretion
  • reduced sex drive
  • flushed, warm skin
202
Q

the term “cold turkey” is a reference to

A

the cold skin that accompanies opioid withdrawal, in which the hair stands up and looks like turkey skin

203
Q

because opioid use results in both tolerance and sensitization, an opioid user is at constant risk of ___

A

overdosing

204
Q

in the US and Canada, opioid overdose is currently the ___ cause of death in people under 50

A

1

205
Q

drugs used to treat overdoses and opioid addiction

A

competitive inhibitor

206
Q

a competitive inhibitor which acts quickly to block opioid action by competing with the opioid for binding sites

A

naloxone

207
Q

because they can also be long-acting, ___ can be used to treat opioid addiction after the addicted person has recovered from withdrawal symptoms

A

competitive inhibitors

208
Q

one of the objectives of pain research

A

producing an analgesic that does not produce addiction

209
Q

what country does not treat chronic pain with opioids, avoiding the opioid crisis?

A

Japan

210
Q

___ alters mood primarily by interacting with the CB1 receptor on neurons and the CB2 receptors on glial cells/other body tissues

A

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

211
Q

cannabis has ___ toxicity, ___ have died from an overdose, but may have a detrimental effect on ___ and positive effect on ___

A

extremely low; 0 people; mood & memory; mental overload

212
Q

what term fed into a growing racism and xenophobia against Mexicans?

A

marijuana

213
Q

the 2 endogenous molecules our body produces that bind to CB1 and CB2

A

anandamide + 2-AG

214
Q

___ reduces anxiety, enhances forgetting, may prevent the brain’s memory systems from being overwhelmed by all the information to which we are exposed each day

A

anandamide

215
Q

___ relieves nausea and emesis (vomiting) in patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy who are not helped by other treatments & stimulates the appetite in patients with anorexia-cachexia (wasting) syndrome

A

cannabis

216
Q

cannabis has also proved useful for treating:

A
  • glaucoma (increased pressure in eye)
  • spastic disorders like MS
  • disorders associated w/ spinal cord injury
  • some epilepsy syndromes
217
Q

many people self-prescribe cannabis for a wide range of ailments including ___

A

PTSD

218
Q

___ hamper scientific investigation into cannabis’ useful medicinal effects

A

legal restrictions

219
Q

alcohol is linked to many harmful behaviours like:

A
  • unprotected sexual activity
  • driving while intoxicated
  • date rape
  • spousal/child abuse
  • aggressive behaviours
  • crime
220
Q

explanations for the effects of alcohol

A
  • disinhibition
  • learning
  • behavioural myopia
221
Q

explanation holding that alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the brain’s frontal cortex, which controls judgement, while sparing subcortical structures responsible for more instinctual behaviours, such as desire

A

disinhibition theory

222
Q

___ depresses learned inhibitions based on reasoning and judgement while releasing the “beast” within

A

alcohol

223
Q

who questions disinhibition theory in their book Drunken Comportment, citing many instances in which behaviour under the influence of alcohol changes from one context to another

A

Craig MacAndrew and Robert Edgerton

224
Q

MacAndrew and Edgarton suggest that behaviour under the effects of alcohol is ___

A

learned

225
Q

“nearsighted” behaviour displayed under the influence of alcohol, wherein local and immediate cues become prominent; remote cues and consequences are ignored

A

behavioural myopia

226
Q

in an altercation, a person with ___ will be quicker than usual to throw a punch because the fight cue is so strong and immediate

A

behavioural myopia

227
Q

___ can explain many lapses in judgement that lead to risky behaviour

A

behavioural myopia

228
Q

approx. ___ of North Americans smoke

A

25%

229
Q

a pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their life

A

substance abuse

230
Q

a complex brain disorder characterized by escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse; called substance use disorder per the DSM-5

A

addiction

231
Q

3 characteristics of additions

A
  1. escalation
  2. compulsive drug taking
  3. relapse
232
Q

___ refers to increased drug consumption through increased dose or dosing frequency

A

escalation

233
Q

___ is a critical factor in the transition from sporadic use to the compulsive and relapsing drug use that characterizes addiction

A

escalation of drug use

234
Q

repetitive and persistent drug administration despite negative consequences

A

compulsive drug taking

235
Q

___ involves the recurrence of compulsive drug use after a period of abstinence

A

relapse

236
Q

addictive drug use is marked by:

A
  • inordinate time spent seeking, preparing, and consuming drugs at the expense of everyday responsibilities
  • numerous failed attempts at abstinence
237
Q

physical and psychological behaviour displayed by a user when drug use ends

A

withdrawal symptoms

238
Q

withdrawal symptoms include

A
  • muscle aches and cramps
  • anxiety attacks
  • sweating
  • nausea
  • convulsions and death
239
Q

symptoms of alcohol or morphine withdrawal can begin ___ and tend to ___ before they subside

A

within hours of the last dose; intensify over several days

240
Q

___ illustrates that the power of psychological dependence can be as influential as the power of physical dependence

A

smoking cigarettes

241
Q

one does not suffer severe withdrawal symptoms if deprived from cigarettes, but can display

A

irritability, anxiety, increased appetite and insomnia

242
Q

the common property many addictive drugs (dopaminergics, GABAergics, opioidergics) have

A

they produce psychomotor activation

243
Q

increased behavioural and cognitive activity so that at certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control

A

psychomotor activation

244
Q

psychomotor activation led to the hypothesis that all abused drugs act on this same target in the brain

A

the dopaminergic pathway from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens

245
Q

___ are associated with an increased risk of drug initiation and drug addiction; includes abuse, neglect, mental illness of house member, witnessing violence against mother, substance abuse by house member, parental separation, incarceration of a house member

A

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

246
Q

each ACE (adverse childhood experience) increases the likelihood for early drug initiation by a factor of ___

A

2-4

247
Q

compared to people with 0 ACEs (adverse childhood effects), people with ___ ACEs have been found to be 7-10x more likely to report drug use problems and addictions

A

5 or more

248
Q

data collected over 4 generations suggests that the effects of these ACEs ___ be accounted for by increased availability of drugs, changing social attitudes toward drugs, or recent massive expenditures and public information campaigns to prevent drug use

A

cannot

249
Q

___ of individuals who have experienced 5+ ACEs have not become addicted to drugs

A

90%

250
Q

women are ___ sensitive to drugs as men, on average, due in part to ___

A

2x more; smaller size + hormonal differences

251
Q

women have ___ incidences of drug addiction vs men

A

more

252
Q

the central problem with hedonia hypothesis

A

the initial pleasurable experience wears off w/ repeated drug taking & can become aversive, yet the user continues to take the drug

253
Q

hedonia hypothesis

A

the pleasurable “rush” associated with natural experiences lead to a variety of impulse control disorders (overeating, gambling, repeated drug use)

254
Q

the brain circuits are ___ for pleasure (liking) and repeating behaviours (wanting)

A

different

255
Q

explanation holding that when a drug is associated w/ certain cues, the cues themselves elicit desire for the drug (AKA incentive sensitization theory)

A

wanting-and-liking theory

256
Q

who defined wanting as craving, whereas liking is the pleasure the drug produces?

A

Terry Robinson and Kent Berridge

257
Q

with repeated use, ___ for “liking” develops, and the expression of “liking” ___

A

tolerance; decreases

258
Q

with repeated use, “wanting” ___, and craving ___

A

sensitizes; increases

259
Q

the decision to take a drug is made in the ___, an area that participates in most daily decisions

A

prefrontal cortex

260
Q

when a drug is taken, it activates ___ that are generally related to pleasurable experiences

A

endogenous opioid systems

261
Q

wanting drugs may spring from activity in the ___

A

nucleus accumbens of the dopaminergic activating system

262
Q

in mesolimbic pathways, the axons of dopamine neurons in the midbrain project to these structures

A
  • basal ganglia
  • nucleus accumbens
  • frontal cortex
  • allocortex
263
Q

___ is the neural correlate of wanting and the repetition of behaviour

A

dopamine release

264
Q

who proposes that the repeated pairing of drug-related cues to drug-taking forms neural associations (learning) in the dorsal striatum, resulting in a habit (unconscious)

A

Barry Everitt

265
Q

Barry Everitt proposes the repeated pairing of drug-related cues to drug taking forms ___ in the ___, a region in the basal ganglia consisting of ___

A

neural associations (learning); dorsal striatum; caudate nucleus + putamen

266
Q

drug users lose control of decision related to drug taking, and ___ gives way to the craving of addiction

A

the wanting - the voluntary control over drug taking

267
Q

the desire for a drug is often greatest when ___

A

the addicted person is maximally high, NOT during withdrawal

268
Q

___ strongly influence decisions to take or, continue taking, a drug

A

cues associated with drug taking:
- social situation
- sight of drug
- drug paraphernalia

269
Q

rats becoming conditioned to cues with reinforcement, and other animals are attracted to the location where they receive reinforcement exemplifies

A

there may be at least 2 types of addiction

270
Q

the similarities between exaggerating normal behaviours and drug addiction suggest ___

A

they depend on the same learning and brain mechanisms

271
Q

3 lines of evidence suggesting a genetic contribution to differences in drug use

A
  1. if a twin abuses alcohol, their identical twin is more likely to be it than would a fraternal twin
  2. people adopted shortly after birth are more likely to abuse alcohol if their biological parents were alcoholic
  3. although most animals do not care for alcohol, selective breeding of mice, rats and monkeys can produce strains that consume large quantities of it
272
Q

addictive drugs may reduce the transcriptional ability of genes related to ___ and increase the transcriptional ability of other genes related to

A

voluntary control; behaviours susceptible to addiction

273
Q

___ can account for both the enduring behaviours that support addiction and for the tendency of drug addiction to be inherited

A

epigenetics

274
Q

two most used drugs

A

alcohol and tobacco

275
Q

two drugs that carry the harshest penalties

A

cocaine and heroin

276
Q

in the US, the ___ made heroin and a variety of other drugs illegal and made the treatment of addicted people by physicians in their private offices illegal

A

Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914

277
Q

the ___ partly reversed the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914, allowing the treatment of addicted patients but with a number of restrictions

A

Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000

278
Q

tobacco has ___ proven health risks than cannabis

A

much higher

279
Q

moderate use of alcohol is likely ___, while moderate use of opioid is likely ___

A

benign; impossible

280
Q

drug addiction must be treated in the same way as ___

A

chronic behavioural addictions and medical problems

281
Q

MSG and glutamate-like substances, like domoic acid and kainic acid, has been found to ___ neurons

A

kill

282
Q

some drugs, such as PCP ketamine, which act as glutamate agonists, cause neuronal ___

A

death

283
Q

heroin addicts who developed Parkinson disease after using ____

A

synthetic heroin laced with a contaminant (MPTP)

284
Q

in low doses, methamphetamine ___

A
  • elevates mood
  • increases alertness, concentration, energy
  • reduces appetite, promotes weight loss
285
Q

at high doses, methamphetamine ___

A
  • induces psychosis in vulnerable individuals
  • can cause seizures + brain hemorrhage
286
Q

individuals who compulsively take methamphetamine, like L.V., display ___

A
  • unpredictable/rapid mood swings
  • paranoia
  • hallucinations, delirium, delusions
  • often violent behaviour
287
Q

chronic methamphetamine use has a toxic effect on ___, leading to ___ in several brain regions and ___

A

human midbrain dopaminergic neurons + serotonin neurons; reductions in grey-matter volume; adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity

288
Q

although ___ is structurally related to amphetamine, it produces hallucinogenic effects, therefore called a hallucinogenic amphetamine

A

MDMA/Molly/Ecstasy

289
Q

doses human users take of MDMA result in the degeneration of___

A

very fine serotonergic nerve terminals

290
Q

___ use may cause memory impairments

A

MDMA

291
Q

MDMA may contain a contaminant called ___, which is often called Dr. Death because ___

A

paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA); the difference between a dose that causes behavioural effects vs. a dose that causes death is miniscule

292
Q

___ use is related to the blockage of cerebral blood flow + other changes in blood circulation

A

cocaine

293
Q

psychoactive properties of cocaine are similar to those of ___, so it is also suspect regarding ___

A

amphetamine; brain damage

294
Q

THC may trigger psychosis in vulnerable individuals, but there is no evidence that it will result in ___

A

brain damage

295
Q

recent studies suggest that ___ may have neuroprotective properties, like ___

A

THC; aid brain healing after TBI, slow the progression of diseases associated with brain degeneration including Alzheimer + Huntington disease

296
Q

many hormones operate in a ___ that includes the brain and body

A

feedback system

297
Q

the hypothalamus produces neurohormones that stimulate the ___ to secrete hormones into the circulatory system, which influence the remaining ___ to release appropriate hormones into the bloodstream to act on various targets in the body & send feedback to the brain

A

pituitary gland; endocrine glands

298
Q

in addition to influencing sex organs + physical appearance, hormones affect ___

A

neurotransmitter function, especially in neurons that influence sexual development and behaviour

299
Q

how do hormones influence gene expression?

A

they bind to special receptors then are transported to the nucleus to influence transcription, which influences the synthesis of proteins

300
Q

fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol

A

steroid hormones

301
Q

as many as ___ hormones are classified as either steroids or peptides

A

100

302
Q

testosterone and cortisol are ___ hormones

A

steroid

303
Q

how to steroids work?

A
  • diffuse away from their site of synthesis in the glands (incl. gonads, adrenal cortex, thyroid)
  • bind to steroid receptors on cell membrane/in the cell
  • frequently act on cellular DNA to influence gene transcription
304
Q

chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell’s physiology

A

peptide hormones

305
Q

insulin, growth hormone, and endorphins are ___ hormones

A

peptide

306
Q

how do peptide hormones work?

A
  • bind to metabotropic receptors on cell membrane
  • generates a second messenger that affects cell’s physiology or gene transcription
307
Q

3 main functional groups steroid + peptide hormones fall into regarding behaviour

A
  1. homeostatic hormones
  2. gonadal (sex) hormones
  3. glucocorticoids
308
Q

one group of hormones that maintain internal metabolic balance + regulate physiological systems in an organism

A

homeostatic hormones

309
Q

___ control both the concentration of water in blood/cells & the levels of sodium, potassium, + calcium in the body, and promote digestive functions

A

mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone)

310
Q

one group of hormones that control reproductive functions + bestow sexual appearance/identity as male or female

A

gonadal (sex) hormones

311
Q

what gonadal hormones control the menstrual cycle?

A

estrogen + progesterone

312
Q

what gonadal hormones control the release of breast milk?

A

prolactin + oxytocin

313
Q

one group of steroid hormones secreted in times of stress; important in protein + carbohydrate metabolism

A

glucocorticoids

314
Q

cortisol and corticosterone are classified as ___

A

glucocorticoids

315
Q

normal glucose concentration in the bloodstream varies between ___

A

80-130mg per 100mL of blood

316
Q

what happens when there is increased glucose in the blood?

A
  • pancreas releases insulin, which instructs the enzyme glycogen synthase in liver
  • muscle cells start storing glucose as glycogen
  • resulting decrease in glucose decreases stimulation of pancreatic cells, which stops insulin production, halting glycogen storage
317
Q

what happens when the body needs glucose for energy?

A

glucagon (liver hormone) stimulates the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to initiate glucose release from its glycogen storage site

318
Q

___ is cause by a failure of the pancreatic cells to secrete any or enough insulin - as a result, blood sugar levels can rise or fall

A

diabetes mellitus

319
Q

in hyperglycemia, blood sugar levels ___ because ___, resulting in ___

A

rise; insulin doe snot instruct the body cells to take up glucose; failure of cell function through glucose starvation

320
Q

chronic high blood glucose levels can cause damage to the ___

A

eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, and blood vessels

321
Q

in hypoglycemia, ___ can lead to __ blood sugar severe enough to cause fainting

A

inappropriate diet; low

322
Q

who proposed insulin resistance in brain cells may be related to Alzheimer disease?

A

Eric Streen

323
Q

hunger/eating are influenced by many homeostatic hormones, including ___

A

leptin + ghrelin

324
Q

___ is secreted by adipose (fat) tissue, inhibits hunger, and is called the satiety hormone

A

leptin

325
Q

___ is secreted by the GI tract when the stomach is empty, regulates growth hormones, energy use, and induces hunger

A

ghrelin

326
Q

leptin + ghrelin act on receptors on the same neurons of the ___ of the hypothalamus and so contribute to energy homeostasis by ___

A

arcuate nucleus; managing eating

327
Q

class of synthetic hormones related to testosterone that have both muscle-building and masculinizing effects

A

anabolic steroids

328
Q

in steroids, anabolic refers to ___ and androgenic refers to ___

A

muscle-building; masculinizing

329
Q

Russian weight lifters were the first to use ___ in 1952 to enhance performance and win international competitions

A

anabolic steroids

330
Q

the use of anabolic steroids is ___ among athletes and nonathletes

A

equal

331
Q

anabolic steroid use in high schools may be as high as __ for males and __ for females

A

7%; 3%

332
Q

risks associated with anabolic steroid use

A
  • reducing body manufacture of testosterone
  • reduces male fertility + spermatogenesis
  • increase in muscle bulk + aggression
  • increased risk of heart attack/stroke + tumors
  • compromised liver + kidney function
  • enhanced male-pattern baldness
  • (female) acne, enlarged clitoris, increased body hair, deepend voice
333
Q

approved clinical uses for anabolic steroids

A
  • treats hypogonadal males
  • treats muscle loss subsequent to trauma
  • recovery of muscle mass in malnourished ppl
  • (female) endometriosis + fibrocystic disease
334
Q

a ___ is a stimulus that challenges the body’s homeostasis + triggers arousal

A

stressor

335
Q

the body’s response is ___ if a stressor is exciting, sad, or frightening

A

the same

336
Q

fast-acting stress pathway

A
  1. fight or flight: hypothalamus sends a neural message thru the spinal cord
  2. sympathetic division of the ANS stimulates the medulla of the adrenal gland
  3. adrenal medulla releases epinephrine into the circulatory system
  4. epinephrine activates the body’s cells, endocrine glands, and the brain
337
Q

slow-acting stress pathway

A
  1. hypothalamus releases CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) into pituitary gland
  2. pituitary gland releases ACTH, which acts on the cortex of adrenal gland
  3. adrenal cortex releases cortisol into circulatory system
  4. cortisol activates the body’s cells, endocrine glands, and the brain
338
Q

what happens if the stress response is not shut down?

A
  • body continues to mobilize energy at the cost of energy storage
  • proteins are used up, resulting in muscle wasting/fatigue
  • growth hormone is inhibited so the body cannot grow
  • GI system remains shut down, reducing the intake/processing of nutrients to replace used resources
  • reproductive functions are inhibited
  • suppressed immune system = possibility of infection/disease
339
Q

why does Sapolsky think the hippocampus plays an important role in turning off the stress response?

A
  • contains a high density of cortisol receptors
  • axons project to hypothalamus
  • well suited to detecting cortisol in blood + instructing hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels
340
Q

why does Sapolsky think the hippocampus plays an important role in turning off the stress response?

A
  • contains a high density of cortisol receptors
  • axons project to hypothalamus
  • well suited to detecting cortisol in blood + instructing hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels
341
Q

who observed wild-born vervet monkeys in Kenya that died of a syndrome related to stress?

A

Sapolsky

342
Q

explain the vicious circle

A
  • unrelieved stress promotes excessive release of cortisol = damages hippocampal neurons
  • damaged neurons cannot detect cortisol = cannot signal adrenal gland to stop producing
  • resulting feedback loop enhances cortisol secretion, further damaging hippocampal neurons
343
Q

stress response circuits in ___ are similar to those in humans

A

rats + monkeys

344
Q

stress-induced hippocampal damage is postulated to result in ___, while stress-induced amygdala changes are postulated to result in ___

A

impaired memory; increased emotional responses

345
Q

research on women who were sexually abused in childhood and have PTSD yield some reports of changes in ___

A

memory or hippocampal volume

346
Q

why has research not yet determined whether the cumulative effects of stress can damage the hippocampus?

A
  1. uncertain how much damage to the hippocampus must occur to produce a stress syndrome
  2. brain-imaging techniques may not be sensitive to subtle changes in hippocampal cell function or to moderate cell loss
  3. wide individual and environmental differences influence how people respond to stress
  4. neonatal stress can influence hippocampal neurogenesis
  5. humans are long lived + gather many experiences that complicate a single stressful event
347
Q

who reported that the density of glucocorticoid receptors in the people who committed suicide/had been sexually abused as children was lower than both controls + suicide victims who had not been abused?

A

Patrick McGowan

348
Q

what does the decrease in receptors and in glucocorticoid mRNA suggest about childhood abuse?

A

it induces epigenetic changes in the expression of glucocorticoid genes

349
Q

What does Patrick McGowan’s study suggest?

A

there’s a mechanism thru which stress can influence hippocampal function without necessarily being associated with a decrease in hippocampal volume

NEUR 2610 (8 decks)

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