Chapter 7 Flashcards
Middle childhood
Period between early childhood and early adolescence, approximately from ages 6 to 11
• Nature and nurture make these the healthiest years of life.
• Safeguarded by genetic and environmental factors
– Genetic diseases are more threatening in early infancy or old age
– Infectious diseases are kept away via immunization
– Fatal accidents
—The most common cause of child death—are relatively uncommon
Evolutionary perspective
Middle Childhood
Genes protect children who have already survived the hazards of birth and early childhood
Lower death rates
A Healthy Time
- Immunizations
* Less lethal accidents and fatal illnesses
Fewer chronic conditions
A Healthy Time
- Better diagnostic and preventive medical care
- Less secondhand smoke
- Better health habits: healthier food sources
- Specialized programs: Centers for gifted, deficit and typical
- Improved oral health
Slow and Steady Growth
• Middle childhood is a time of slow and steady growth
– Average child gains about 2 inches and 5 pounds per year
• Maintenance of good health related to adult instruction and regular medical care
• Camps for children with special health needs are beneficial
Health Problems: Obesity
• Many 6- to 11-year-olds eat too much, exercise too little, and become overweight or obese as a result.
• Excessive weight contributes to future health risk increases, average achievement decreases, self-esteem failures, and loneliness.
– Childhood obesity is increasing worldwide, having more than doubled since 1980 in all three North American nations.
Body mass index (BMI)
Health Problems
Ratio of weight to height, calculated by dividing a person’s body weight in pounds by the square of his or her height in inches
Childhood overweight
Health Problems
In a child, having a BMI above the 85th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control’s 1980 standards for children of a given age
Childhood obesity
Health Problems
In a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control’s 1980 standards for children of a given age
Genetic influences
Obesity
Dozen of genes affect weight by influencing activity level, hunger, food preference, body type, and metabolism.
Parenting practices
Obesity
- Infants—No breast feeding and solid foods before 4 months
- Preschoolers—Bedroom TV watching and soda consumption
- School-agers—Insufficient sleep, extensive screen time, little active play
- Schools in US: Even when schools mandate gym, classes may be too full for active play, or requirements may be ignored.
Asthma, Definition
Health Problems: Asthma
A chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the nose and mouth to the lungs
Incidence
Health Problems: Asthma
childhood asthma rates have tripled since 1980
– Parents report 15% of U.S. 5-11 year-olds diagnosed with at some point in time and almost 11% still suffer
Signs and symptoms
Health Problems: Asthma
Wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing, difficulty in breathing
Hygiene hypothesis
Health Problems: Asthma
Carpets, pollution, house pets, airtight windows, parental smoking, cockroaches, dust mites, less outdoor play— correlate with asthma attacks, but again no single factor is the cause.
Concrete operational thought
Cognition
Piaget’s term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions
Classification
Cognition
Logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common
Seriation
Cognition
Things can be arranged in a series. Seriation is crucial for understanding the number sequence
Piaget recognized that connections allow logical ideas to be applied to many specifics.
Children’s Cognition in Math
- Children do not suddenly grasp the logic of number system (Piaget).
- Math knowledge accrues gradually (Siegler).
- Some early math achievements (i.e., counting) do not correlate with later math achievements (information-processing theory).
Sensory memory
Memory
Component of the information processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be processed (sensory register).
– E.g., when a person sees an object briefly before it disappears. Once the object is gone, it is still retained in the memory for a very short period of time.
Working memory
Memory
Component of the information processing system in which current, conscious mental activity occurs (short-term memory).
– E.g., phone numbers
– Working memory improves gradually and markedly through processing.
– Information from working memory is transferred to long-term memory.
Long-term memory
Memory
Component of the information processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely.
• Memory storage expands over childhood, but more important is retrieval.
Reaction time
Information Processing and the Brain
Time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive movement such as an eye blink) or cognitively (with a thought)
Automatization
Information Processing and the Brain
Process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine, so that it no longer requires conscious thought; required in academic skill development
Selective attention
Information Processing and the Brain
Ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others
Knowledge base
Information Processing and the Brain
Extensive knowledge base makes it easier to master new, related information. • Factors influencing knowledge base – Experience – Current opportunity – Personal motivation
Control processes
Information Processing and the Brain
– Emotional regulation
– Selective attention
Metacognition
Information Processing and the Brain
Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes
• Involves understanding one’s own learning
• Can be considered the ultimate control process
• Improves each year of middle childhood
Vocabulary
Teaching and Learning: Language
• By age 6
– Know most of the basic vocabulary and grammar of their first language
– May speak a second language
• In middle childhood
– Learn thousands of new words and how to apply complex grammar
– Become more flexible and logical
– Can understand prefixes, suffixes, compound words,
phrases, metaphors, and figures of speech
International Achievement Test Scores
Learning in School
– Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
– Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS)
Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
Learning in School
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Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS)
Learning in School
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Gender differences in school performances
Learning in School
- PIRLS: Girls ahead of boys in verbal skills in every nation
- TIMSS: Gender differences among fourth-grader math have narrowed or disappeared
- Gender-similarities hypothesis: Males and females are similar on most tests with trivial exceptions
- STEM majors: Fewer women in these majors
Schools in the U.S.: Children NOT at top of international rankings
• 11th in math (TIMSS)
• 6th in reading achievement (PIRLS)
What’s Causing Low Scores: Types
Choices and Complications
- Public schools
- Charter schools
- Private schools
- Home schooling
What’s Causing Low Scores: Overview
Choices and Complications
• Role of community control and parental choice in
education
• Most funding from local jurisdictions
Four general principles
Learning Problems: Developmental Psychopathology
- Abnormality is normal.
- Disability changes year by year.
- Life may get better or worse.
- Diagnosis and treatment reflect the social context.
Aptitude
Measuring the Mind
Aptitude tests are designed to measure learning potential; achievement tests are designed to measure what a child has learned.
– Intellectual aptitude is often measured by IQ tests
Achievement tests
Measuring the Mind
An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge
– The most common type is a standardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level
IQ tests: Stanford-Bine Intelligence Scale
Measuring the Mind
An individually administered intelligence test that was revised from the original Binet-Simon Scale by Lewis M. Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University.
IQ tests: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Measuring the Mind
Developed by David Wechsler, is an individually
administered intelligence test for children between the ages of 6 and 16.
IQ tests: Flynn effect
Measuring the Mind
The average IQ scores of nations have increased, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect.
Multiple intelligences: Gardner
Measuring the Mind
– Seven intelligences: linguistic, logical mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential
–Each associated with a region of the brain
– Used in education
Developmental Psychopathology
Special Needs in Middle Childhood
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Two basic principles of developmental psychopathology complicate diagnosis and treatment.
• Multifinality
• Equifinality
Multifinality
literally means “many ends.” This refers to people having similar histories (e.g., child sexual abuse, death of a parent, or a secure attachment history) yet their developmental outcomes can vary widely.
Equifinality
how different early experiences in life (e.g., parental divorce, physical abuse, parental substance abuse) can lead to similar outcomes (e.g., childhood depression). In other words, there are many different early experiences that can lead to the same psychological disorder.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Special Needs in Middle Childhood
Condition in which a person is inattentive, impulsive, and overactive and has great difficulty concentrating for more than a few moments
Drug abuse
Special Needs in Middle Childhood
Ritalin is the common name for methylphenidate, classified by the Drug Enforcement Administration as a Schedule II narcotic—the same classification as cocaine, morphine and amphetamines
– It is abused by teens for its stimulant effects.
Increasing incidence concerns
Special Needs in Middle Childhood
- Misdiagnosis
- Drug abuse
- Normal behavior considered pathological: Energetic, excited, physical
Specific learning disorder
DSM-5 Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder
Marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability or by an unusually stressful home environment
Dyslexia
DSM-5 Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder
Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment
Dyscalculia
DSM-5 Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder
Unusual difficulty with MATH, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain
Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD)
Specific Learning Disorder: Au?sm Spectrum Disorder
Any of several disorders characterized by poor social understanding, impaired language, and unusual patterns of play
– Cause and treatment disputed
– Equifinality applies
– Most diagnosis at age 4 or later
– 46 percent in normal or above range on IQ tests
– Gender and ethnic differences in rates
• Three categories: Mild, moderate, severe
Special Education: Labels, laws, and learning
• 1975 Education of All Handicapped Children Act – Inclusion class; general classroom – Appropriate aids and services • Other strategies – Response to intervention (RTI) – Individual education plans (IEP)
Gifted and Talented Education in School
High-IQ, unusually talented, and unusually creative children may require special education.
• Needs of unusually gifted children not covered by U.S. federal laws.
• Each state selects and implements own system.
• Controversy about which system to use
