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Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

The science of human development

A

seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

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2
Q

The Scientific Method

*Why use?

A
  1. Curiosity (pose question)
  2. Develop hypothesis
  3. Test hypothesis
  4. Draw conclusions
  5. Report the results

*Avoid bias and misinterpretations

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3
Q

Hypothesis

A

a testable prediction

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4
Q

Empirical evidence

A

data

Empirical = based on, concerned with, or verifiable by OBSERVATION or EXPERIENCE rather than theory or pure logic.

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5
Q

Nature

A

The coding of GENES in each cell in us humans determine the different traits that we inherit, e.g. eye color, hair color, ear size, height

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6
Q

Nurture

A

ENVIRONMENTAL influences that affect development, e.g. family, school, community, society

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7
Q

What are some abstract attributes for which it’s not known if they’re gene-coded in our DNA?
(Nature-Nurture)

A

Intelligence
Personality
Sexual orientation

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8
Q

Differential susceptibility

Nature-Nurture

A

How environmental experiences differ because of particular inherited genes

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9
Q

Epigenetics***

Nature-Nurture

A

the study of changes in organisms caused by

MODIFICATION OF GENE EXPRESSION rather than alteration of the genetic code itself, e.g. twins.

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10
Q

Critical Period

A

Time when certain things MUST occur for normal development

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11
Q

Sensitive Period

A

Time when a particular development occurs most easily, not exclusively

E.g. childhood is a sensitive period for learning to pronounce a second or third language (w/o an accent).

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12
Q

The life-span perspective

A

Takes into account all phases of life, not just the first two decades like other theories

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13
Q

Development is multi-directional

The Life-Span Perspective

A

Over time, human characteristics change in every direction

-Discontinous vs. continuous

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14
Q

Discontinuous stages of`
development
(Development is multi-directional)

A

Developments that appear quite different from those that came before.
-Freud, Erickson, Piaget

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15
Q

Continuous stages of
development
(Development is multi-directional)

A

Developments over time that appear to persist, unchanging, from one age to the next. Parents might recognize the same personality traits in their grown children that they saw in them as infants

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16
Q

Development is multi-contextual
(The Life-Span Perspective)

(context = details, basis or foundation of smthng)

A

Many contexts can influence development, such as:
– physical surroundings (e.g. popul’n density, pollution)
– family configurations (e.g. single parent household)
– Historical context (Cohort)
– Socioeconomic context

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17
Q

Cohort

Development is multi-contextual

A

A group defined by the shared age of its members born within a few years of one another
– Cohort influences attitudes and behavior (e.g. marijuana)

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18
Q 
Socioeconomic status (SES)
(Development is multi-contextual)
A

A person’s position in society as determined by

income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence/neighborhood.

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19
Q

Gini index

Development is multi-contextual

A

a measure of income equality, ranging from 0= everyone is equal to 1= one person has all the money

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20
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Approach

Development is multi-contextual

A

Each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions.

– Five nested levels surround individuals and affect them

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21
Q

What are the 5 systems in the ecological model?

Development is multi-contextual

A 
Microsystems (inner world)
Mesosystem (cnxs btwn systems)
Exosystems (local institutions)
Macrosystems (outside world)
Chronosystem (time system)
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22
Q

Microsystems

Development is multi-contextual

A

inner world - immediate, direct influences; elements of the person’s immediate surroundings
e.g. family, school, neighborhood

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23
Q

Mesosystem

Development is multi-contextual

A

interaction of all the systems

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24
Q

Exosystems

Development is multi-contextual

A

local institutions that influence microsystem

e.g. employment system, educational system, mass media

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25
Q

Macrosystems

Development is multi-contextual

A

outside world, politics,
the larger social setting
e.g. cultural patterns, political philosophies, economic policies, teachers

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26
Q

Chronosystem

Development is multi-contextual

A

dimension of TIME, which affects the other systems

Changing conditions, personal and societal, over the life span

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27
Q

Development is multi-cultural

A

Overlap btwn ethnicity, race, culture

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28
Q

Culture

Development is multi-cultural

A

System of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior

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29
Q 
Social construction
(Development is multi-cultural)
A

– Based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality
– Many age-related terms, e.g. childhood, adolescence,
yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions

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30
Q

Learning within a culture: Vygotsky

Development is multi-cultural

A

Lev Vygotsky described the interaction btwn culture and education.
– Proposed GUIDED PARTICIPATION

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31
Q

Guided participation

Development is multi-cultural

A

a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits.

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32
Q

Ethnicity

Development is multi-cultural

A

The fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition.

Social construction—affected by social context, not a direct outcome of biology

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33
Q

Ethnic group

Development is multi-cultural

A

Consists of people whose ancestors were born in the same region
• They often share a language, culture, national origin and religion

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34
Q

Race

Development is multi-cultural

A
  • Social construction that continues to lead to racism
  • Race is a group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the basis of appearance, typically skin color.
  • Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance.
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35
Q

Development is plastic (moldable)

A
  1. People can change over time
  2. New behavior depends partly on what has already
    happened
    • Human traits can be molded, yet people maintain a certain durability
    • Adult neurogenesis
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36
Q

Development is…

The Life-Span Perspective

A

multi-directional
multi-contextual
multi-cultural
plastic

37
Q

Dynamic systems approach

The Life-Span Perspective

A

– Suggests human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaxn btwn body-mind and btwn the individual and every aspect of the environment.
– Highlights how developmental change has always occurred.

38
Q

Developmental Theories

A

Dozens of theories concerning human development

– Social scientists are strongly influenced by theories

39
Q

What do developmental theories do?

A

– provide a comprehensive, influential, and distinctive
view of human development
– provide framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older

40
Q

Psychoanalytic theory

Theories of Human Development

A

– Proposes that irrational, UNCONSCIOUS
drives and motives, often originating in childhood, influence behavior
– Freud and Erikson

41
Q

Freud

Psychoanalytic theory

A

– First psychoanalyst
– Proposes FIVE psychoSEXUAL stages
during which sensual satisfaction is linked to developmental needs and conflicts.
– Suggests early conflict resolution determines personality patterns.

42
Q

Erik Erikson

Psychoanalytic theory

A

– Proposed five psychoSOCIAL
stages built on Freud’s theory but added three adult stages.
– Described EIGHT developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis.

43
Q

Behaviorism

Theories of Human Development

A 
–  Learning theory 
–  Conditioning
•  John Watson 
•  Ivan Pavlov
•  B.F. Skinner
44
Q

Learning theory

Behaviorism

A

– Focuses on OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR.

– Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

45
Q

Conditioning

Behaviorism

A

Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular STIMULU.

46
Q

John Watson

Behaviorism

A

– American psychologist
– One of earliest proponents
of behaviorism and
LEARNING THEORY
– Argued that scientists
should examine only what they could observe and measure.
– Proposed anything can be learned with focus on behavior.

47
Q

Ivan Pavlov

Behaviorism

A

Received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his digestive processes research (DOGS).
– Resulted in discovery of CLASSICAL conditioning

48
Q

Classical conditioning

Behaviorism

A

Demonstrates that behaviors can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a NATURALLY OCCURRING stimulus.

49
Q

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism

A

– Inspired by Pavlov

– Was best known for experiments with rats, PIGEONS, and his own daughter.

50
Q

Operant conditioning

Behaviorism

A

A learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired or something unwanted,
making the action either more or less likely to be repeated

51
Q

Social learning theory

Theories of Human Development

A

– Extension of behaviorism
– Emphasizes people influence each other’s behavior
– Proposes that, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people (MODELING), even without specific reinforcement
• Albert Bandura

52
Q

Albert Bandura

A

– First described social learning theory
– Emphasizes the influence that other people have over
a person’s behavior
– Social learning and aggression (BOBO DOLL experiment)

53
Q

Jean Piaget

A
  • Maintained that COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT occurs in four major age-related periods, or stages
  • Stressed that intellectual advancement occurs throughout life because humans seek cognitive equilibrium.
54
Q

Cognitive theory

Theories of Human Development

A
  • Proposes THOUGHTS and EXPECTATIONS profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions.
  • Focuses on changes in how people think over time.
55
Q

**Piaget’s 4 Periods of Cognitive Development

A
  1. Sensorimotor
  2. Preoperational
  3. Concrete operational
  4. Formal operational
56
Q

Cognitive Theory and New Experiences

Theories of Human Development

A

o A new experience can be jarring and incomprehensible.

o The resulting experience is one of cognitive disequilibrium, an imbalance that initially creates confusion.

57
Q

Disequilibrium

Cognitive theory

A

o Disequilibrium leads to cognitive growth because it forces people to adapt their old concepts.
o Piaget describes two types of adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.

58
Q

Assimilation

Cognitive theory

A

Experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas.

59
Q

Accommodation

Cognitive theory

A

Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences.

60
Q

Humanism

Theories of Human Development

A

Stresses the potential all human beings have to be good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture or gender.

61
Q

Abraham Maslow

Theories of Human Development

A

– One of the founders of humanism
– Arranged common human needs in a hierarchy.
– Contended that everyone must satisfy each lower level before moving higher.

62
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Theories of Human Development

A
  1. Physiological (food, drink, shelter)
  2. Safe and secure
  3. Love and belonging
  4. Esteem
  5. Self-actualization

Maslow’s hierarchy is like a ladder: Once a person stands firmly on a higher rung, the lower rungs are no longer needed.

63
Q

Evolutionary theory

Theories of Human Development

A

The theory of evolution by NATURAL SELECTION: the process by which organisms change over time and as the result of changes in heritable physical and/or behavioral traits.

64
Q

Variable

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

any factor, trait, or condition that exists in differing amounts or types.

65
Q

What are the three types of variables?

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

independent, dependent, and controlled

66
Q 
Independent variable
(The Scientific Method: Types of Research)
A

the variable that is INTRODUCED to see what effect it has on the dependent variable

67
Q 
Dependent variable
(The Scientific Method: Types of Research)
A

the variable that MAY CHANGE as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds

68
Q

Controlled variable / Comparison group

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

are quantities that a scientist wants to remain CONSTANT, and he must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables.

69
Q

Experimental Research

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

Establish cause and effect by isolating and manipulating the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable

70
Q

Two types of groups

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

Experimental group and Comparison / control group

71
Q

Experimental group

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

gets a particular treatment (independent variable)

72
Q

Comparison / control group

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

does NOT get the treatment (independent variable)

73
Q

Correlational Research

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

A correlation identifies and looks for a relationship between the variables
> Correlation is not causation

74
Q

Positive correlation

Correlational Research

A

both variables tend to increase together or decrease together

75
Q

Negative correlation

Correlational Research

A

one variable tends to increase while the other decreases

76
Q

Zero correlation

Correlational Research

A

no connection is evident

77
Q

Cross-sectional research

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

Groups of people of one age are compared with people of another age (DIFFERENT AGES)

78
Q

Longitudinal research

The Scientific Method: Types of Research

A

Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age (OVERTIME)

79
Q

Cross-sequential research (The Scientific Method: Types of Research)

A

Studying several groups of people of different ages (i.e., cross-sectional) and following them over the years (i.e., longitudinal)

80
Q

Scientific observation

The Scientific Method: Gathering Data

A
  • Requires researchers to record behavior systematically and objectively.
  • May be conducted in a naturalistic setting or a laboratory.
81
Q

Survey

The Scientific Method: Gathering Data

A

Includes information collected from a large number of people through interview, questionnaire, or some other means.

82
Q

Challenges of a Survey

The Scientific Method: Gathering Data

A

– Some people lie; some change their minds.

– Survey answers are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions.

83
Q

Ethical Guidelines:

Before Research Can Be Conducted

A

Study and report data must abide by ethics
– Each academic discipline and professional society involved in the study of human development has a code of ethics (e.g., Psychology’s IRB).

84
Q

Purpose of ethical guidelines

A
  • Ensures that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless
  • Promotes research accuracy and truthfulness
85
Q 
Informed consent
(ethical guidelines)
A

participants must understand the research procedures and any risks involved

86
Q

What are the three domains of human development?

A

– Biological development
– Cognitive development
– Psychosocial development

• Very few factors belong exclusively to one domain or another

87
Q

Cognitive development

Domains of Human Development

A

– Mental processes
– Cognition encompasses perception, imagination, judgment, memory, and language, i.e. the processes ppl use to think, decide, and learn.

88
Q

Psychosocial development

Domains of Human Development

A

– Includes development of emotions, temperament, and social skills.
– Family, friends, community, culture, and larger society are central to this domain.

89
Q

Difference-equals-deficit error

Development is multi-cultural

A

– Humans tend to believe that they, their nation, and their
culture are a little better than others
– Belief becomes destructive if it reduces respect and
appreciation for others

Life-span Psych (10 decks)

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