Chapter 1 Flashcards
The science of human development
seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.
The Scientific Method
*Why use?
- Curiosity (pose question)
- Develop hypothesis
- Test hypothesis
- Draw conclusions
- Report the results
*Avoid bias and misinterpretations
Hypothesis
a testable prediction
Empirical evidence
data
Empirical = based on, concerned with, or verifiable by OBSERVATION or EXPERIENCE rather than theory or pure logic.
Nature
The coding of GENES in each cell in us humans determine the different traits that we inherit, e.g. eye color, hair color, ear size, height
Nurture
ENVIRONMENTAL influences that affect development, e.g. family, school, community, society
What are some abstract attributes for which it’s not known if they’re gene-coded in our DNA?
(Nature-Nurture)
Intelligence
Personality
Sexual orientation
Differential susceptibility
Nature-Nurture
How environmental experiences differ because of particular inherited genes
Epigenetics***
Nature-Nurture
the study of changes in organisms caused by
MODIFICATION OF GENE EXPRESSION rather than alteration of the genetic code itself, e.g. twins.
Critical Period
Time when certain things MUST occur for normal development
Sensitive Period
Time when a particular development occurs most easily, not exclusively
E.g. childhood is a sensitive period for learning to pronounce a second or third language (w/o an accent).
The life-span perspective
Takes into account all phases of life, not just the first two decades like other theories
Development is multi-directional
The Life-Span Perspective
Over time, human characteristics change in every direction
-Discontinous vs. continuous
Discontinuous stages of`
development
(Development is multi-directional)
Developments that appear quite different from those that came before.
-Freud, Erickson, Piaget
Continuous stages of
development
(Development is multi-directional)
Developments over time that appear to persist, unchanging, from one age to the next. Parents might recognize the same personality traits in their grown children that they saw in them as infants
Development is multi-contextual
(The Life-Span Perspective)
(context = details, basis or foundation of smthng)
Many contexts can influence development, such as:
– physical surroundings (e.g. popul’n density, pollution)
– family configurations (e.g. single parent household)
– Historical context (Cohort)
– Socioeconomic context
Cohort
Development is multi-contextual
A group defined by the shared age of its members born within a few years of one another
– Cohort influences attitudes and behavior (e.g. marijuana)
Socioeconomic status (SES) (Development is multi-contextual)
A person’s position in society as determined by
income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence/neighborhood.
Gini index
Development is multi-contextual
a measure of income equality, ranging from 0= everyone is equal to 1= one person has all the money
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Approach
Development is multi-contextual
Each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions.
– Five nested levels surround individuals and affect them
What are the 5 systems in the ecological model?
Development is multi-contextual
Microsystems (inner world) Mesosystem (cnxs btwn systems) Exosystems (local institutions) Macrosystems (outside world) Chronosystem (time system)
Microsystems
Development is multi-contextual
inner world - immediate, direct influences; elements of the person’s immediate surroundings
e.g. family, school, neighborhood
Mesosystem
Development is multi-contextual
interaction of all the systems
Exosystems
Development is multi-contextual
local institutions that influence microsystem
e.g. employment system, educational system, mass media
Macrosystems
Development is multi-contextual
outside world, politics,
the larger social setting
e.g. cultural patterns, political philosophies, economic policies, teachers
Chronosystem
Development is multi-contextual
dimension of TIME, which affects the other systems
Changing conditions, personal and societal, over the life span
Development is multi-cultural
Overlap btwn ethnicity, race, culture
Culture
Development is multi-cultural
System of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior
Social construction (Development is multi-cultural)
– Based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality
– Many age-related terms, e.g. childhood, adolescence,
yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions
Learning within a culture: Vygotsky
Development is multi-cultural
Lev Vygotsky described the interaction btwn culture and education.
– Proposed GUIDED PARTICIPATION
Guided participation
Development is multi-cultural
a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits.
Ethnicity
Development is multi-cultural
The fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition.
Social construction—affected by social context, not a direct outcome of biology
Ethnic group
Development is multi-cultural
Consists of people whose ancestors were born in the same region
• They often share a language, culture, national origin and religion
Race
Development is multi-cultural
- Social construction that continues to lead to racism
- Race is a group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the basis of appearance, typically skin color.
- Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance.
Development is plastic (moldable)
- People can change over time
- New behavior depends partly on what has already
happened
• Human traits can be molded, yet people maintain a certain durability
• Adult neurogenesis
Development is…
The Life-Span Perspective
multi-directional
multi-contextual
multi-cultural
plastic
Dynamic systems approach
The Life-Span Perspective
– Suggests human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaxn btwn body-mind and btwn the individual and every aspect of the environment.
– Highlights how developmental change has always occurred.
Developmental Theories
Dozens of theories concerning human development
– Social scientists are strongly influenced by theories
What do developmental theories do?
– provide a comprehensive, influential, and distinctive
view of human development
– provide framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older
Psychoanalytic theory
Theories of Human Development
– Proposes that irrational, UNCONSCIOUS
drives and motives, often originating in childhood, influence behavior
– Freud and Erikson
Freud
Psychoanalytic theory
– First psychoanalyst
– Proposes FIVE psychoSEXUAL stages
during which sensual satisfaction is linked to developmental needs and conflicts.
– Suggests early conflict resolution determines personality patterns.
Erik Erikson
Psychoanalytic theory
– Proposed five psychoSOCIAL
stages built on Freud’s theory but added three adult stages.
– Described EIGHT developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis.
Behaviorism
Theories of Human Development
– Learning theory – Conditioning • John Watson • Ivan Pavlov • B.F. Skinner
Learning theory
Behaviorism
– Focuses on OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR.
– Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.
Conditioning
Behaviorism
Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular STIMULU.
John Watson
Behaviorism
– American psychologist
– One of earliest proponents
of behaviorism and
LEARNING THEORY
– Argued that scientists
should examine only what they could observe and measure.
– Proposed anything can be learned with focus on behavior.
Ivan Pavlov
Behaviorism
Received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his digestive processes research (DOGS).
– Resulted in discovery of CLASSICAL conditioning
Classical conditioning
Behaviorism
Demonstrates that behaviors can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a NATURALLY OCCURRING stimulus.
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorism
– Inspired by Pavlov
– Was best known for experiments with rats, PIGEONS, and his own daughter.
Operant conditioning
Behaviorism
A learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired or something unwanted,
making the action either more or less likely to be repeated
Social learning theory
Theories of Human Development
– Extension of behaviorism
– Emphasizes people influence each other’s behavior
– Proposes that, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people (MODELING), even without specific reinforcement
• Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura
– First described social learning theory
– Emphasizes the influence that other people have over
a person’s behavior
– Social learning and aggression (BOBO DOLL experiment)
Jean Piaget
- Maintained that COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT occurs in four major age-related periods, or stages
- Stressed that intellectual advancement occurs throughout life because humans seek cognitive equilibrium.
Cognitive theory
Theories of Human Development
- Proposes THOUGHTS and EXPECTATIONS profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions.
- Focuses on changes in how people think over time.
**Piaget’s 4 Periods of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Cognitive Theory and New Experiences
Theories of Human Development
o A new experience can be jarring and incomprehensible.
o The resulting experience is one of cognitive disequilibrium, an imbalance that initially creates confusion.
Disequilibrium
Cognitive theory
o Disequilibrium leads to cognitive growth because it forces people to adapt their old concepts.
o Piaget describes two types of adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation
Cognitive theory
Experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas.
Accommodation
Cognitive theory
Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences.
Humanism
Theories of Human Development
Stresses the potential all human beings have to be good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture or gender.
Abraham Maslow
Theories of Human Development
– One of the founders of humanism
– Arranged common human needs in a hierarchy.
– Contended that everyone must satisfy each lower level before moving higher.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theories of Human Development
- Physiological (food, drink, shelter)
- Safe and secure
- Love and belonging
- Esteem
- Self-actualization
Maslow’s hierarchy is like a ladder: Once a person stands firmly on a higher rung, the lower rungs are no longer needed.
Evolutionary theory
Theories of Human Development
The theory of evolution by NATURAL SELECTION: the process by which organisms change over time and as the result of changes in heritable physical and/or behavioral traits.
Variable
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
any factor, trait, or condition that exists in differing amounts or types.
What are the three types of variables?
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
independent, dependent, and controlled
Independent variable (The Scientific Method: Types of Research)
the variable that is INTRODUCED to see what effect it has on the dependent variable
Dependent variable (The Scientific Method: Types of Research)
the variable that MAY CHANGE as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds
Controlled variable / Comparison group
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
are quantities that a scientist wants to remain CONSTANT, and he must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables.
Experimental Research
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
Establish cause and effect by isolating and manipulating the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable
Two types of groups
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
Experimental group and Comparison / control group
Experimental group
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
gets a particular treatment (independent variable)
Comparison / control group
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
does NOT get the treatment (independent variable)
Correlational Research
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
A correlation identifies and looks for a relationship between the variables
> Correlation is not causation
Positive correlation
Correlational Research
both variables tend to increase together or decrease together
Negative correlation
Correlational Research
one variable tends to increase while the other decreases
Zero correlation
Correlational Research
no connection is evident
Cross-sectional research
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
Groups of people of one age are compared with people of another age (DIFFERENT AGES)
Longitudinal research
The Scientific Method: Types of Research
Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age (OVERTIME)
Cross-sequential research (The Scientific Method: Types of Research)
Studying several groups of people of different ages (i.e., cross-sectional) and following them over the years (i.e., longitudinal)
Scientific observation
The Scientific Method: Gathering Data
- Requires researchers to record behavior systematically and objectively.
- May be conducted in a naturalistic setting or a laboratory.
Survey
The Scientific Method: Gathering Data
Includes information collected from a large number of people through interview, questionnaire, or some other means.
Challenges of a Survey
The Scientific Method: Gathering Data
– Some people lie; some change their minds.
– Survey answers are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions.
Ethical Guidelines:
Before Research Can Be Conducted
Study and report data must abide by ethics
– Each academic discipline and professional society involved in the study of human development has a code of ethics (e.g., Psychology’s IRB).
Purpose of ethical guidelines
- Ensures that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless
- Promotes research accuracy and truthfulness
Informed consent (ethical guidelines)
participants must understand the research procedures and any risks involved
What are the three domains of human development?
– Biological development
– Cognitive development
– Psychosocial development
• Very few factors belong exclusively to one domain or another
Cognitive development
Domains of Human Development
– Mental processes
– Cognition encompasses perception, imagination, judgment, memory, and language, i.e. the processes ppl use to think, decide, and learn.
Psychosocial development
Domains of Human Development
– Includes development of emotions, temperament, and social skills.
– Family, friends, community, culture, and larger society are central to this domain.
Difference-equals-deficit error
Development is multi-cultural
– Humans tend to believe that they, their nation, and their
culture are a little better than others
– Belief becomes destructive if it reduces respect and
appreciation for others
