Chapter 6 Flashcards
Emotional regulation (effortful control) (Emotional Development)
- Ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
- Preeminent psychological task between 2 and 6 years of age
- Cultural differences
3 influences of emotional regulation
Emotional Development
- Maturation
- Learning
- Culture
Initiative versus guilt
Emotional Development
- Erikson’s third psychosocial crisis
* Children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.
North American parents ideally
Emotional Development
- Encourage enthusiasm, effort, and pride.
- Prevent guilt.
- Encourage joy.
Pride
Pride and Prejudice
includes gender, size, and
heritage (U.S.)
Prejudice
Pride and Prejudice
Often involves feelings of
superiority to children of
another sex, nationality, or
religion
Neurological advances
Brain Maturation
- Growth of prefrontal cortex at about age 4 or 5
* Myelination of the limbic system
Improved behaviors and abilities
Brain Maturation
- Longer attention span
* Improved capacity for self-control
Motivation
Motivation
• Propels action and is derived from personal
or social context.
• Two types: Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation
- Drive, or reason to pursue a goal
- Comes from inside a person
- Apparent in imaginary friends
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation
- Drive, or reason to pursue a goal
* Arises from the need to have achievements rewarded from outside
Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation
In Search of Praise
Distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is crucial in understanding how and when to praise
something the child has done.
Effectiveness of praise tied to
In Search of Praise
– Praise of particular production and not general trait
– Specific praise for effort and not generalized statement
Play
Play is the most productive and enjoyable
activity that children undertake.
• Play is universal.
– Has occurred for many thousands of years
– Reported in every part of the world
Two general kinds of play
General Kinds of Play
– Solitary
– Social
Developmental differences
General Kinds of Play
– Most infant play: Solitary or with parent
– Toddlers: Slowly better playmates
– Young children: Best with peers
Form of play influenced by
General Kinds of Play
• Form of play changes with age, cohort, and
culture.
The Historical Context
As children grow older, play becomes more social, influenced by brain maturation, playmate availability, and the physical setting.
Types of Play: Parten (1932)
- Solitary play
- Onlooker play
- Parallel play
- Associative play
- Cooperative play
Solitary play
Types of Play: Parten
A child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby.
Onlooker play
Types of Play: Parten
A child watches other children play.
Parallel play
Types of Play: Parten
Children play with similar toys in similar ways, but not
together.
Associative play
Types of Play: Parten
Children interact, observing each other and sharing
material, but their play is not yet mutual and reciprocal.
Cooperative play
Types of Play: Parten
Children play together, creating and elaborating a
joint activity or taking turns.
Rough-and-tumble play
Active Play
• Mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting with no intention to harm.
• Contains expressions and gestures (e.g., play face) signifying that the child is “just pretending.”
• Is particularly common among young males.
• Advances children’s social understanding but increases
likelihood of injury.
• May positively affect prefrontal cortex development.
Sociodramatic Play
Allows children to act out various roles and themes in stories that they create. • Enables children to: – Explore and rehearse the social roles. – Test their ability to explain. – Practice regulating their emotions. – Develop a self-concept.
Parents differ on four important dimensions.
Baumrind’s Styles of Caregiving
- Expressions of warmth
- Strategies for discipline
- Communication
- Expectations for maturity
On the basis of these dimensions, three parenting styles were identified.
AuthoritaRIAN parenting
Baumrind’s Styles of Caregiving
High behavioral standards,
strict punishment of misconduct, and little
communication
Permissive parenting
Baumrind’s Styles of Caregiving
High nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control
AuthoritaTIVE parenting
Baumrind’s Styles of Caregiving
Parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.
Neglectful/uninvolved parenting
Styles of Caregiving
Sternberg presents a fourth style, where parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of
what is going on in their children’s lives.
Children of authoritaRIAN parents tend to:
Implications of Parenting Style
- Become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy.
- Feel guilty or depressed and blame themselves when things do not go well.
- Rebel as adolescents and leave home before age 20.
Children of permissive parents tend to:
Implications of Parenting Style
• Be unhappy and lack self-control, especially in peer
relationships.
• Suffer from inadequate emotional regulation.
• Be immature and lack friendships (main reason for their unhappiness).
• Continue to live at home, still dependent, in early adulthood.
Children of authoritaTIVE parents tend to:
Implications of Parenting Style
• Be successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and
generous with others.
• Be well-liked by teachers and peers, especially in
societies in which individual initiative is valued.
Children of neglectful/uninvolved parents tend to:
Implications of Parenting Style
- Be immature, sad, and lonely.
* Be at lifelong risks of injury and abuse.
Critique of Baumrind’s Model
• Original sample had little economic, ethnic, or cultural
diversity.
• More focus was on attitudes than on daily interactions.
• No recognition that some authoritarian parents are very loving toward their children.
• No recognition that some permissive parents guide their children intensely, but with words, not rules.
• Child’s contribution to the parent-child relationship
overlooked.
Culture powerfully affects caregiving style.
A View from Science
• Difference apparent in multiethnic nations
• Differences between majority and minority U.S.
families should not be exaggerated.
– Parents of all groups usually show warmth to their
children.
– Harsh, cold parenting appears harmful in every group.
Before age 2
Becoming Boys and Girls
Children know whether they are boys or girls and apply gender labels consistently.
By age 4
Becoming Boys and Girls
Children are convinced that certain toys (such as dolls or trucks) are appropriate for one gender but not the other.
Sex differences
Sex and Gender
Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape
Gender differences
Sex and Gender
Differences in the roles and behaviors that are prescribed by a culture for males and females.
Gender differences during development
Sex and Gender
– Initial confusion about gender and sex
– Age 5: Increased awareness of sex and gender differences
– Age 8: Belief that their biological sex is a permanent trait
– From age 2 to age 8: Awareness of sex differences,
preferences for same-sex playmates, and stereotypical
gender activities increase.
Phallic stage
Theories of Gender Role Development: Psychoanalytical Theory
Freud’s third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
Oedipus complex
Theories of Gender Role Development: Psychoanalytical Theory
The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mothers’ exclusive love
Identification
Theories of Gender Role Development: Psychoanalytical Theory
Considering the behaviors, appearance, and attitudes of someone else to be one’s own
Gender differences
Theories of Gender Role Development: Behaviorism
– Product of ongoing reinforcement and punishment
– Are learned through all roles, values, and morals.
“Gender-appropriate”
Theories of Gender Role Development: Behaviorism
Rewarded more frequently than “gender-inappropriate”
behavior
Social learning theory (extension of behaviorism)
Theories of Gender Role Development: Behaviorism
Children notice the ways men and women behave and internalize the standards they observe.
Cognitive theory
Theories of Gender Role Development: Cognitive theories
Offers an alternative explanation for the strong gender identity that becomes apparent at about age 5.
Gender schema
Theories of Gender Role Development: Cognitive theories
– Child’s cognitive concept or general belief about sex
differences
– Based on his or her observations and experiences
– Young children categorize themselves and everyone else as either male or female and then think and behave accordingly.
Hierarchy of needs
Theories of Gender Role Development: Humanism
– Children strive for admiration from a group of peers they belong to even more than for the love of their parents.
– Young children try to belong by conforming to gender norms.
Sexual attraction is crucial for basic urge to reproduce.
Theories of Gender Role Development: Evolutionary theory
– Males and females try to look attractive to the other sex in gendered ways.
– Young boys and girls practice becoming attractive to the other sex.
Moral Development
Emotional and social maturation are the foundations for morality.
• Both nature and nurture are always influential, but
developmentalists disagree about which is more important for morality.
Nature perspective
Moral Development
Morality is genetic outgrowth of natural bonding, attachment, and cognitive maturation.
Nurture perspective
Moral Development
Culture is crucial to the development of morality.
Prosocial behavior
Moral Development
Extending helpfulness and kindness without any obvious benefit to oneself: Increases with maturity
– Empathy
Antisocial actions
Moral Development
Deliberately hurting another person, including people who have done no harm: Declines with maturity
– Antipathy
General Types of Aggression****
- Instrumental
- Reactive
- Relational
- Bullying
- All forms of aggression usually become less common from ages 2 to 6, as the brain matures and empathy increases.
- Children learn to use aggression selectively, and that decreases both victimization and aggression.
Slap, Spank, and Beat
• In the U.S., young children are slapped, spanked, or beaten
– More often than other children and more often
than children in Canada and western Europe
Is Spanking OK?
Spanking opinions are influenced by past experience and cultural norms.
• Some researchers believe that physical punishment is
harmless; some do not.
• Physical punishment increases obedience temporarily, but increases the possibility of later aggression.
• Physical punishment correlates with delayed theory of mind and increased aggression.
Psychological control
Other Forms of Punishment
Disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child’s feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.
Time-out
Other Forms of Punishment
Disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.
Induction
Other Forms of Punishment
an alternative to physical punishment and psychological control.
Harm reduction
Harm to Children
Reducing the potential negative consequences of behavior
Accident
Harm to Children
Referring to random, unpredictable injury
• Injuries from cars and trucks
• Lead poisoning (plumbism)
Child maltreatment
Child Maltreatment Noticed and Defined
Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment
of anyone under 18 years of age
Substantiated maltreatment
Child Maltreatment Noticed and Defined
Harm or endangerment that has been reported,
investigated, and verified
Reported maltreatment
Child Maltreatment Noticed and Defined
Harm or endangerment about which someone has
notified the authorities
The 5-to-1 ratio of reported versus substantiated cases occurs because:
(Frequency of Maltreatment)
• Each child is counted only once. • Substantiation requires proof. • Mandated reports are required signs of possible maltreatment. • Some reports are screened out. • Some reports are deliberately false.
Postraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Symptoms of maltreated children coincide with PTSD.
• Some maltreated children suffer from PTSD, with
signs of neurological, emotional, and behavioral
damage.
Consequences of Maltreatment
Effects of maltreatment are devastating and long-lasting.
• Mistreated and neglected children
– Regard people as hostile and exploitative.
– Are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other children.
– Experience greater social deficits.
– May experience large and enduring economic consequences.
Three Levels of Prevention
- Primary prevention
- Secondary prevention
- Tertiary prevention
Primary prevention
Three Levels of Prevention
Focus on macrosystem and exosystem
Secondary prevention
Three Levels of Prevention
Focus on warning signs and intervention
Tertiary prevention
Three Levels of Prevention
Focus on everything that limits harm after maltreatment has already occurred
Caregivers and Prevention
All levels of prevention require helping caregivers to
provide a safe, nurturing, and stable home.
• When a child is removed from home and entrusted
to another adult/s
– Foster care
– Kinship care
