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Fundamentals of Learning > Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Flashcards

1
Q

IC is about:

A

contingencies (If R, then O)
(however contingencies change)

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2
Q

can contingencies change?

A

YES

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3
Q

Discriminative stimulus (S):

A

tells us which contingencies are in effect

  • if S, then R –> O
    -If no S, then R does nothing
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4
Q

IC is really a _ association

A

IC is really a three-part association

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5
Q

What are the three parts associations in IC:

A
  • context / discriminative stimulus, S
  • behavioural response, R
    -outcome, O
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6
Q

The associative structure of instrumental conditioning originated with:

A

Thorndike

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7
Q

Do pavlovian mechanisms play a role in instrumental conditioning?

A

yes

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8
Q

What is thorndike’s law of effect (S-R learning):

A

If a response in the presence of a stimulus results in a satisfying event then the S-R association is strengthened

If the response is followed by an annoying event then the S-R association is weakened

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9
Q

S =

A

the context (Stimuli)

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10
Q

How important are discriminative stimuli in instrumental conditioning?

A

they are crucial

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11
Q

R=

A

the instrumental response

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12
Q

O=

A

The response outcome

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13
Q

In Thorndike’s law of effect (S-R) learning, the reinforcer (O) serves to:

A

“stamp in” the S-R association

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14
Q

How is Thorndike’s law of effect motivation for instrumental behaviour?

A

Activation of the S-R association upon exposure to contextual stimuli (S), in the presence of which the response was previously reinforced

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15
Q

In thorndike’s law of effect : S-R learning, there is no learning about:

A

“o” or “S-O” or “R-O”

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16
Q

The earliest two process theory was proposed by:

A

Hull and Spence

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17
Q

reward expectency :

A

S-O

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18
Q

What was the early two process theory proposed by Hull and Spence?

A

Two factors motivate the instrumental response:

A) S-R Association
–>The stimulus comes to evoke the response directly

B) S-O Association
–> Response is motivated by the expectancy of reward

Two factors INFLUENCE each other (we know today that this is not true)

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19
Q

The modern two-process theory was proposed by:

A

Rescorla and Black

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20
Q

What is the modern two-process theory about?

A

(1) S-O association (Pavlovian Learning)

(2) Conditioned, central emotional state (positive or negative based on the reinforcer)

(3) Response

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21
Q

PIT test: how can we test the idea that pavlovian conditioned emotions motivate instrumental behaviour?

A

Manipulating the expectancy should change response rate

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22
Q

IC is about :

A

contingencies ( if R then O)
( contingencies change)

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23
Q

IC is really a __ association

A

Three part :

-context (discriminative stimulus)–> S
- Behavioural response –> R
- Outcome, O

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24
Q

__ are crucial in Instrumental conditioning

A

Discriminative stimuli

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25
Q

What motivates instrumental behaviour?

A
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26
Q

In Thorndike’s law of effect, the reinforcer “o” serves to:

A

“stamp in” the S-R association

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27
Q

In thorndike’s law of effect there is no learning about:

A

“O” or “s-o” or “R-O”

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28
Q

What is the PIT test comprised of?

A

three phases

Phase 1 : instrumental conditioning

Phase 2: Pavlovian Conditioning

(Phase 1 and Phase 2 can be interchanged)

Phase 3: Present Pavlovian CS during performance of instrumental response
ex : Lever press –>
Food w/ tone vs food w/ no tone

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29
Q

In the pavlovian instrumental transfer test, the positive emotional state generated by the appetitive CS :

A

summates with the appetitive motivatin that is involved in pressing the lever to obtain food

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30
Q

__ and __ activity associated with PIT

A

AMYGDALA and VENTRAL STRIATUM activity associated with PIT

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31
Q

In regards to specific reward expectency: summation occurs when?

A

summation occurs only when organism expects same outcome

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32
Q

Do R-O associations exist?

A

yes

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33
Q

How were R-O associations proven/demosntrated

A

Using instrumental devaluation

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34
Q

Who used instrumental devaluation to prove that R-O associations exist?

A

Colwill and Rescorla

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35
Q

Describe the process of instrumental devaluation

A
  1. Instrumental training: rats trained to push rod left or right for food or sucrose on VI 1-min schedule
  2. Devaluation of the reward: for some animals the food, for others the sucrose, was paired with LiCl (conditioned aversion). Rod was ABSENT
  3. Rod places back into the chamber, Instrumental responding was examined in the absence of any reinforcement
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36
Q

What motivates instrumental behaviour?

A
  1. Associative structure of instrumental conditioning
  2. Response allocation
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37
Q

Associative structure of instrumental conditioning: S activates:

A
  • S activates R
    -S also activates the R-O association
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38
Q

Response allocation has a __ view

A

molar

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39
Q

What do we mean by molar view:

A

Molar view: how performing one response limits other activities/ redistributes activities

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40
Q

What was Thorndike’s definition of a reinforcer?

A

A stimulus that produces a satisfying state of affairs

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41
Q

What was Skinner’s definition of a reinforcer:

A

A stimulus or outcome that increases the response that caused the stimulus to become available

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42
Q

What is wrong with Skinner and Thorndikes definition of a reinforcer:

A

-These are valuable definitions, but NOT theories of reinforcement
- they describe a relationship between a behaviour and a consequence
-do not let us predict what “things” will be in reinforcers
“they do not let us predict if certain “things” will serve as reinforcers in different situations

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43
Q

What was Sheffield’s definition of a reinforcer:

A

Reinforcers are species-specific consummatory responses

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44
Q

First time that reinforcers were considered to be anything other than “stimuli”;

A

Consummatory Response Theory (Scheffield)

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45
Q

Describe the consummatory response theory:

A

Many reinforcers, such as food and water, elicit species-typical uncondi- tioned responses, such as chewing, licking, and swallowing. The consummatory-response theory attributes reinforcement to these species-typical behaviors. It asserts that species- typical consummatory responses (eating, drinking, and the like) are themselves the critical feature of reinforcers. In support of this idea, Sheffield, Roby, and Campbell (1954) showed that saccharin, an artificial sweetener, can serve as an effective reinforcer, even though it has no nutritive value and hence cannot satisfy a biological need.

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46
Q

The Premack Principle

A

Reinforcers are high probability responses

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47
Q

According to the premack principle, difference in __ is critical for reinforcement

A

acccording to the premack principle, difference in RESPONSE PROBABILITY is critical for reinforcement

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48
Q

Differential probability principle:

A

if L->H, then H reinforces L

example: for a hungry rat, eating will reinforce lever-pressing, but lever pressing cannot reinforce eating

49
Q

differential probability principle is NOT:

A

if H->L does not Reinforce H

50
Q

according to the premack principle: a low probability response is reinforced if:

A

it precedes a high probability response

51
Q

Timberlake and allison rejected __ and argued __

A

the premark principle and argued that RESTRICTION was sufficient to produce reinforcement

52
Q

Response-deprivation hypothesis:

A

– Every behaviour has a preferred level, and once access to the
behaviour is restricted then we will perform another
behaviour to get it back

53
Q

According to the response deprivation hypothesis, the reinforcer is created by:

A

the instrumental contingency

54
Q

Some evidence supports the response deprivation

A

Studies on children with mental disabilities suggest

55
Q

Homeostasis

A

Physiological mechanisms that must be maintained at a certain level
– Blood sugar, body temperature, neurotransmitter levels

56
Q

Text suggests that behaviours also operate on

A

‘Preferred or optimal distribution of activities that

57
Q

Every organism has a preferred
(optimal) distribution of possible
activities
– Called the

A

behavioural bliss point

58
Q

organisms defend against challenges to their bliss points through (2)

A

(1) response allocation
(2) minimum deviation point

59
Q

response allocation:

A

Rate of one response as close as
possible to its preferred level,
without moving the other response
too far away from its preferred level

60
Q

Behavioural Bliss Point
* Reinforcement effect:

A

– Increase in occurrence of instrumental response
above the level of that behaviour in the
absence of the response-reinforcer contingency
– Example: Study time increases more than it
would occur normally, as a result of making TV
watching contingent upon studying

61
Q

Behavioural Economics

A

Value as a function of cost
The study of how organisms distribute their time and effort among possible behaviours
‘Allocation of behaviour within a system of constraints’

62
Q

Behavioural Economics, comomodity =

A

reinforcer

63
Q

behavioural economics: price =

A

time or total number of responses (effort) required to aobtain the reinforcer

64
Q

Behavioural economics: in the lab: johnson and bickel:

A

– Compared demand curves for cigarettes and money in smokers
– 3 types of reinforcers, available independently: 3 puffs on cig; 5c; 25c
– Escalating fixed ratio schedule
* Across session increase in response requirement
– FR3, 30, 60, 100, 300, 600 , 1000, 1800, 3000, 6000

65
Q

___ greatly influences the elasticity of demand

A

The availability and price of alternatives
greatly influences the elasticity of demand

66
Q

behavioural regulation theories characterized by:

A

a shift in thinking about reinforcers as special types of stimuli, to being special types of responses

67
Q

In behavioural regulation theories, reinforcers are (4):

A

– Species-typical, consummatory responses
– High-probability behaviours
– Created by imposing a period of deprivation
– Commodities

68
Q

Behavioural regulation and behavioural economics: framework to:

A

analyze how constrainets imposed by instrumental conditioning procedures influence behaviour

69
Q
A
70
Q

Behavioural regulation and behavioural economics: not

A

contradiction of associative theories on instrumental
conditioning, just a different perspective

71
Q

Behavioural economics is the study

A

of how organisms
choose to allocate their time and resources among
various responses that result in different outcomes

72
Q

The bliss point is the allocation of resources

A

that
provides maximal subjective value to an individual

73
Q

The Premack principle states that:

A

the opportunity to
perform a highly frequent behaviour can reinforce
performance of a less-frequent behaviour

74
Q

The response deprivation hypothesis states that

A

any
behaviour can be reinforcing if the opportunity to
perform that behaviour is restricted

75
Q

Neuroeconomics:

A

Brain designed to maximize
reinforcement (profit) while minimizing effort (cost)

76
Q

Neuroeconomics provides an:

A

explanation for choice behaviour

77
Q

what system could code for neuroeconomics/choice behaviour:

A

dopamine (DA) in the mesocorticolimbic pathway

78
Q

We have brain systems for signaling

A

hedonic value

79
Q

hedonic value

A

subjective “goodness” of a reinforcer
or how much we “like” it

80
Q

Endogenous opioids signal

A

the hedonic value (“liking”)
of reinforcers

81
Q

Incentive salience hypothesis

A

DA motivates learners
to work for reinforcement

82
Q

One of the “pleasure centres” is

A

the ventral
tegmental area (VTA) in the brainstem

83
Q

the VTA is the center for

A

DA neuromodulation

84
Q

VTA stimulation =

A

powerful reinforcement

85
Q

Dopamine (DA) implicated in addiction:

A

A disorder of motivation

86
Q

All drugs of abuse increase DA in:

A

the striatum and nucleus accumbens

87
Q

Study with monkeys revealed:

A

DA activity in
the striatum when reinforcement given

88
Q

results of how DA responses change in monkeys experiment:

A

DA released in response to
reinforcers in environment
* Training shifts DA signal to
predictor
* See  DA signal in response
to absence of reward
– DA predicts availability of
reinforcer and instigates
actions to acquire it

89
Q

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):

A

Can visualize blood flow in the brain

90
Q

In fMRI we infer that:

A

increased blood flow to a specific area is associated with increased activity

91
Q

fMRI do not measure _ , but __

A

fMRI do not measure increased DA, but increased activity in theses dopaminiergic brain areas

92
Q

The substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) is

A

a part of the BG that contains DA-producing
neurons that project to the striatum

93
Q

IC requires

A

integrated activity in many brain
areas

94
Q

Two brain areas in particular serve distinct
roles in overall conditioning:

A

(1)The dorsal striatum
(2)The orbitofrontal cortex

95
Q

The dorsal striatum seems to play a role in

A

linking the stimulus with the response (S-R part)

96
Q

The orbitofrontal cortex seems to play a role in

A

linking responses with outcomes (R-O part)

97
Q

The basal ganglia (BG) are a set of subcortical
structures that link

A

sensory and motor cortices

98
Q

within the basal ganglia, the ___ plays an important role

A

dorsal striatum

99
Q

the dorsal striatum includes:

A

(1)caudate nucleus
(2) putamen

100
Q

In rats, DS lesions produce:

A

problems of IC, simple R-O relationships are learned correctly, however, no learning with discriminative stimuli

101
Q

dorsal striatum has a specific role in:

A

linking discriminative stimuli to behavioural contingencies

102
Q

the orbitofrontal cortex is part of:

A

the prefrontal cortex

103
Q

the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in:

A

learning to predict outcomes of behaviour

104
Q

The orbitofrontal cortex receives input from:

A

sensory modalities and visceral sensations

105
Q

orbitofrontal cortex involved in:

A

R-O learning

106
Q

Orbitofrontal cortez output travels to:

A

the striatum, where it can determine which motor responses are executed

107
Q

Activity in this region indicates reward magnitude and valence

A

amygdala

108
Q

Lesion amygdala (BLA) and eliminate

A

escape response in aversive task

109
Q

Rats: striatum signals either

A

“go” or “no go” , determining whether a response is performed

110
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex important for:

A

decision making

111
Q

Medial OFC activated in response to

A

reinforcing outcomes

112
Q

Damaged OFC

A

outcome value not used in decision making

113
Q

habit learning is influenced by:

A

lower brain structuress

114
Q

habit learning is influenced by which lower brain structures?

A

amygdala and striatum

115
Q

habit learning uses __ to guide behaviour

A

habit learning uses prediction of next available reinforcer (and errors in prediction) to guide behaviour

116
Q

executive function controlled by the :

A

OFC

117
Q

Why we are better planners/decision makers than animals and children

A

Executive function
– Controlled by the OFC

118
Q

executive function: rapid response to new information can:

A

nhibit habit learning if needed
* i.e., delayed gratification – must override “lower” brain areas that desire
marshmallow to gain larger reinforce in the future

119
Q
A

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