Chapter 4

Question 1

What are the two explanations for how associations are formed ?

Answer 1

(1) S-S learning (stimulus-substiute)
(2) S-R learning (stimulus response learning)

Question 2

S-S learning:

Answer 2

Conditioning results in activation of a “US center” in the brain (representation of the US) by the CS

CS substitutes for the US

Question 3

S-R learning:

Answer 3

Conditioning establishes a new stimulus-response connection between the CS and CR

Question 4

In regards to S-S learning, if the CS serves as a substitute for the US, then the nature of the response should be determined by:

Answer 4

the US

Question 5

What is a prediction for the S-S learning?

Answer 5

If the CS serves as a substitute for the Us then the nature of the CR should be determined by the US

Cs’s conditioned with differerent US’s should elicit different types of contditioned response

Question 6

• Jenkins & Moore (1973)

Answer 6

in regards to SS learning:When the CS was paired with grain, the conditioned response involved pecking behavior (typical of foraging).
When the CS was paired with water, the response was more oriented towards drinking (e.g., licking behavior).

Question 7

The findings from Timberlake and Grant (1975) provide important insights into how sometimes:

Answer 7

They showed that certain CSs could elicit specific behaviors that are characteristic of the CS itself, regardless of the nature of the US. For instance, a visual stimulus might evoke different responses than a tactile or auditory stimulus.
This suggests that the intrinsic properties of the CS influence how an organism responds to it, indicating that the CS is not just a signal for the US but also has its own effects on behavior.These findings challenge the idea that conditioning is solely a product of the US. Instead, they highlight the importance of the CS in determining how organisms respond, supporting a more nuanced understanding of the conditioning process.
The study suggests that both S-S and S-R learning mechanisms can coexist, depending on the context and characteristics of the stimuli involved.

Question 8

Is it S-S or S-R Learning?

Answer 8

Controlled experiment to test this: Devalue the US
– Hungry rats
– Train them to associate a 10-sec light with food delivery
– Measure conditioned orienting response to light

If the rats’ behavior changes with the devaluation of the US, it supports S-S Learning. If their response remains unchanged, it suggests S-R Learning is at play.

Question 9

Rescorla (1975) Study
Objective:

Answer 9

To investigate how changes in the unconditioned stimulus (US) influence conditioned responses and to assess whether these responses are better explained by S-S or S-R learning.

Question 10

Rescorla’s Findings

Answer 10

Rescorla found evidence that supported the S-S Learning model. The responses of the animals changed with the devaluation of the US, indicating that the CS was indeed acting as a signal for the US, and that the nature of the conditioned response was influenced by the US’s value.

Question 11

Sensory pre-conditioning

Answer 11

If NS1 is paired with NS2, NS2 may
elicit a CR when NS1 becomes a CS

Question 13

difference between sensory preconditioning and higher order conditioing?

Answer 13

The NSs are paired BEFORE conditioning in sensory preconditioning

Question 14

sensory preconditioning is more effective

Answer 14

-NS1 and NS2 occur simultaneously

-with fewer experience to NS1 (rprevent latent inhibition)

Question 15

What are the theoretical implications of sensory pre conditioning?

Answer 15

1. S-S associations may occur in the absence of an UR
2. Evidence for latent learning

Question 17

S-S Associations May Occur in the Absence of a US:

Answer 17

Sensory pre-conditioning demonstrates that associations can form between two neutral stimuli (CS1 and CS2) without any unconditioned stimulus (US) being present initially.
This challenges the traditional view that a US is always necessary for conditioning. It suggests that the mere pairing of stimuli can lead to learning and that organisms can form mental representations of relationships between stimuli even when no reinforcement is involved.

Question 18

Sensory precondition evidence for:

Answer 18

Latent learning refers to knowledge that is acquired but not immediately reflected in behavior. In the context of sensory pre-conditioning, the association formed between CS1 and CS2 can be seen as latent learning.

Question 19

What are the four factors influencing strength and time required for classical conditioning&

Answer 19

1. The number of pairings of the CS and the US (the more pairings the better)
2. The intensity of the US (the more intense the US the faster conditioning occurs)
3. How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus (the more reliable the better)
4. The temporal relationship between the CS and the US (the less elapsed time the better -> taste aversions can be an exeption to this rule)

Question 20

What makes an effective CS and US (3)?

Answer 20

1. Initial response to the stimuli
   2.Significance and discriminability
2. CS-US relevance

Question 21

Initial response to the stimuli (What Makes An Effective CS & US)?

Answer 21

• CS does not initially elicit the conditioned response
  -US elicits target response without prior training

Question 22

Significance and discriminability (2) -What Makes An Effective CS & US?

Answer 22

(A) intensity/ salience
(B) novelty of the stimuli

Question 23

Intensity/ Salience: Significance an discriminibility (what makes an effective CS and US)

Answer 23

• Give MORE:
  – Make the US more relevant to the biological needs of the organism
• Larger quantity
• Something needed by organism
• Make it NATURALISTIC:
  – Make the CS more similar to the kinds of stimuli that an animal will
  encounter in its natural environment

Question 24

Latent Inhibition:

Answer 24

• Pre-expose to CS repeatedly
• Then pair CS with US
• Learning is inhibited
• Animal has learned that the
  CS is useless, has stopped
  paying attention
• Another blow to behaviourism

Question 25

describe belongingness/associative bias:

Answer 25

Some associations are innately easier to make (Garcia koelling taste aversion study):
– When tone + taste paired with poison, only taste provokes CR
– When tone + taste paired with shock, only tone provokes CR
– In nature, tastes go with getting sick, sounds with getting hurt
* Seems we have some innate preferences for forming
associations

Question 26

Blocking effect:

Answer 26

The interference with conditioning of a novel
stimulus because of the presence of a
previously conditioned stimulus

Question 27

The blocking effect was initially investigated in:

Answer 27

fear conditioning using the conditioned suppression technique with rats (Kamin)

Question 28

What were the conclusions about Karmin’s blocking study:

Answer 28

1. Temporal contiguity (pairing of CS with US) is not sufficient for Pavlovian conditioning
2. For learning to occur, the US must be SURPRISING!!!

Question 29

____ show that the “rules “ for CC are complex

Answer 29

Timing effects, blocking, LI and associative (or belongingness)

Question 30

since rules for CC are complex:

Answer 30

• researchers have turned to models of C: formal sets of rules for when learning will occur:
• The hope is that a simple model will be able to explain the complexity of CC

-mismatch between model and data provides clues to what we still need to understand

Question 32

The Rescorla-Wagner Model:

Answer 32

A mathematical model of Pavlovian conditioning

– Surprisingness of the US determines how much conditioning will occur

Question 33

The Rescorla-Wagner Model: Assumptions

Answer 33

1. When a CS and a US are paired an association is formed
2. The learning of this association is a curvilinear function
3. The effectiveness of the US in conditioning a CS is determined by how different the US is from what is expected

expect a small US and get a larger one -> excitatory conditioning

expect a large US and get a smaller one -> inhibitory conditioning

4. The expectation of the US is related to the conditioned properties of all the stimuli that precede the US

Question 34

In the Rescorla Wagner model:The associative strength of a CS increases with conditioning
until :

Answer 34

the CS perfectly predicts the US

Question 35

λ

Answer 35

represents the US that is delivered on a given trial

determined by magnitude of US

Question 36

V:

Answer 36

represents the associative value of the stimuli that precede the US.

Question 37

When CS perfectly predicts US:

Answer 37

V is at its maximum

Question 38

With each conditioning trial the US becomes less surprising

Answer 38

Therefore, the value of ∆V will decrease across trials

Question 39

To quantify surprise we must focus on the relationship
between V and λ

Answer 39

As V increases over trials it approaches λ and the occurrence of the US
becomes less surprising

Question 40

Surprisingness of the US is denoted by:

Answer 40

λ – V

Question 41

Rate of conditioning varies based on:

Answer 41

The type of conditioning procedure and on the salience of the CS

Question 42

Rescorla-Wagner Equation:

Answer 42

Rescorla-Wagner Equation:

Question 43

∆V:

Answer 43

Amount of conditioning on
any trial

Question 44

k:

Answer 44

a constant that relates to the
salience of the CS and the US

Question 45

λ:

Answer 45

maximal association strength

Question 46

V:

Answer 46

strength of association at the
beginning of trial

Question 47

Attentional Models of Conditioning

Answer 47

Attention to environmental cues (CS) is crucial for learning associations with salient stimuli (US). When a US is surprising or significant, it directs more attention to the CS, enhancing the conditioning process.

Question 48

The Rescorla-Wagner Model is also
important because of its ability to

Answer 48

explain
more unusual occurrences

Question 49

3 types of attention-based learning of CS-US

Answer 49

1. Looking for action: CS already predicts US
2. Looking for learning: US was surprising so looking for effective CS
3. Looking for liking: US is salient so attend to any possible predictors (CS)

Question 50

Prospective/proactive model:Attentional Models of Conditioning

Answer 50

This model posits that organisms are forward-looking, focusing on cues that may predict future events rather than merely reacting to past experiences. It contrasts with the RW model, which primarily emphasizes the reduction of surprise or prediction error associated with the US.