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Fundamentals of Learning > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Behaviourism: two theories of learning:

A

(1) Classical conditioning
(2) Operant Confidioning

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2
Q

Behaviourist assumptions of learning(4):

A

(1) Principles of learning apply across species
(2) S-R psychology (stimulus-response) or S-O-R
(3)Organisms are born as blank slates
(4)Learning is largely the result of environmental events

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3
Q

Describe the first behaviourist Assumption of learning: “Principles of learning apply across species”

A

Principles of learning apply across species

-Equipotentiality: humans and other animals learn the same way

-Apply research findings from animal studies to human learning

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4
Q

Equipotentiality:

A

humans and other animals learn the same way
(thus we can apply research findings from animal studies to human learning)

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5
Q

Describe S-R Psychology (stimulus response)

A
  • Focus only on what can be measured and observed
    -Mental Processes and thoughts are unimportant
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6
Q

Describe S-O-R:

A

-Stimulus-ORGANISM-response
-Behaviourists that believe that mental processes (motivation) are important in understanding learning

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7
Q

Describe assumption 3 of learning according to behaviourists:

A

-Organisms are born as blank slates
-aside from reflexes, we are born blank without any “predispositions’ and the environment shapes us

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8
Q

Who said: “Give me a dozen healthy infants,
well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I’ll
guarantee to take any one at
random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select
– doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant -
chief and, yes, even beggar-man
and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations, and race of his ancestors”:

A

John B. Watson

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9
Q

Describe the 4th assumption of learning according to behaviourists:

A

-Learning is largely the result of environmental events
- learning happens to an organism and is often beyond its control
-If we have complete knowledge of an organism’s past, we can predict their behaviour
-Modern beviourists do not think this way anymore

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10
Q

Ivan Pavlov won:

A

the nobel prize for role of insulin in digestion

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11
Q

When digestion was revealed to be under hormonal control and nervous system in digestion became less popular, Pavlov:

A

took a new persepective on research: associative learning

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12
Q

Describe associative learning (pavlov):

A

-New reflexes to stimuli can be acquired through learning
-Associations between stimuli

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13
Q

How did Pavlov discover modified reflexes through learning?

A

Reflexes that are important in digestion
-The salivary reflex

Salivary response to food
Fistula —> accurate salivary measurements

Initially got salivation to food
-gradually salivation to the sight of food, lab tech, etc
-use of a totally unrelated stimuli -> BELL

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14
Q

End result of classical conditioning is that:

A

A conditioned “reflex” is formed to a once neutral stimulus

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15
Q

Reflexes are:

A

Involuntary responses to a stimulus

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16
Q

Reflexes can be(2):

A

-unlearned (unconditioned)
-learned (conditioned

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17
Q

What are some examples of unconditioned reflexes:

A

food (unconditioned stimulus) -> salivation (unconditioned response)

onion juice (unconditioned stimulus) -> tears (unconditioned response)

heat (unconditioned stimulus) –> perspiration (unconditioned response)

loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) -> startle (unconditioned response)

light in eye (unconditioned stimulus) -> contraction of pupil (UR)

Puff of air in eye (US) -> blink (UR)

touching a hot stove (US) -> hand withdrawal (UR)

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18
Q

___ is critical for pavlovian conditioning

A

Object learning

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19
Q

In regards to classical (pavlovian) conditioning: Before conditioning trials: Food -> salivation

A

Food = unconditional stimulus (US)
Salivation = unconditional response (UR)
Bell = neutral stimulus or conditional stimulus

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20
Q

Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning: after conditioning trials: Bell -> Salivation

A

Bell = conditional stimulus (CS)
salivation = conditional response (CR)

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21
Q

Definition of classical conditioning:

A

Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which an association is formed between one stimulus and another

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22
Q

A stimulus in CC can be:

A

any event or object in the environment

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23
Q

In CC, a “neutral” stimulus becomes:

A

an “important” stimulus through learning

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24
Q

Define NS: Neutral Stimulus

A

A stimulus to which the organism does not respond

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25
Q

Define US: Unconditioned Stimulus:

A

Any stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning

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26
Q

Define UR: unconditioned response:

A

The automatic unlearned response (a reflex) made to the unconditioned stimulus

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27
Q

Define CS: conditioned stimulus:

A

The neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus, produces a response

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28
Q

Define CR: Conditioned Response:

A

The learned response made to the conditioned stimulus

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29
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of pavlovian conditioning:

A

(1) Can occur quickly

(2) most likely to occur if the CS (e.g., tone) is presented before the US (e.g., meat)

(3) involves involuntary responses

(4) widespread in the animal kingdom, but not quite as ubiquitous as habituation

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30
Q

Describe the pavlovian conditioning characteristic: “can occur quickly”

A

-Pavlovian conditioning can occur in as little as 5 or 6 pairings

-Even 1 pairing

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31
Q

Pavlovian conditioning is most likely to occur if:

A

The conditioned stimulus (e.g. tone) is presented before the US (e.g. meat)

** this is the second of four characteristics of pavlovian conditioningé

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32
Q

Pavlovian conditioning is less likely to occur if :

A

The conditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the Unconditioned stimulus

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33
Q

Pavlovian conditioning will almost never occur if:

A

The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented after the unconditioned stimulus (US)

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34
Q

Pavlovian conditioning is widespread in the animal kingdom but:

A

not quite as ubiquitous as habituation

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35
Q

__ do not seem to be capable of CC

A

Protozoans

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36
Q

Human Learning involves various forms of associative learning, many of which can be explained through classical conditioning. Some examples include:

A

-Taste aversions
-Phobias
-Test Anxiety
-Fear of failure

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37
Q

Generalization occurs when:

A

A stimulus, similar to the conditoned stimulus elicits the conditioned response

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38
Q

Discrimination occurs when:

A

The conditioned response is made only to the conditioned stimulus and not to any other simtuli

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39
Q

Pavlov’s dogs and tones continued to salivate only to “c”, this is an example of:

A

discrimination

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40
Q

who performed the little albert experiment?

A

Watson and Rayner

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41
Q

Describe the Little Albert experiment:

A

-Conditioned a 9 month old baby to fear a white rat
-Little Albert also learned to fear other things that resembles the white furry rat (generalization)

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42
Q

What are examples of aversive conditioning paradigms?

A
  1. Odor Conditioning
  2. Fear conditioning in animals
  3. Conditioned taste aversion
  4. Eye Blink Conditioning
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43
Q

Describe odour conditioning?

A

-Exposure to shock (unconditioned stimulus) innately produces escape/avoidance behaviour (Unconditioned response)

-The conditioned stimulus is an odor

-After the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, Conditioned stimulus comes to produce avoidance (CR)

-Can work with only one trial

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44
Q

Aversive Conditioning:

A

New conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response helps avoid noxious unconditioned stimulus

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45
Q

conditioned emotional response procedure:

A

Phase 1: Trained to press lever for food

Phase 2: Trained to associate conditioned stimulus (brief tone or light) with unconditioned stimulus (0.1-0.5 mA shock)

Phase 3: Conditioned stimulus presented during lever pressing

DV: suppression ratio (indirect) or freezing (direct)

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46
Q

Suppression ratio =

A

conditioned stimulus responding / (CS responding + pre CS responding)

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47
Q

Describe the conditioned taste aversion experiment:

A

(conditioned saccharin aversion in rats)

-water deprived rats, given restricted access to water on home-cage

-conditioning day: 0.1% saccharin in H2O

-sickness induced following saccharin exposure

-control rats received sham radiation

24 hr after treatment, measured consumption of saccharin or water in 2-bottle choice test

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48
Q

What was the result of the conditioned taste aversion?

A
  • 1 trial learning
  • Long delay learning
  • Strong aversion
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49
Q

Eye blink conditioning can be performed in:

A

Human and nonhuman animals

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50
Q

Describe pavlovian-conditioned eye-blink response in 5 month infants:

A

conditioned stimulus -> 750 ms tone

unconditioned stimulus -> a gentle puff of air to eye

Group 1 (Paired)
CS:US
Conditioning trials 12-sec apart

Group 2 (unpaired)
CS and US 4-8 seconds apart

-Measured blinks during CS

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51
Q

Describe eye blink conditioning in rabits:

A
  • CS = light, tone or mild vibration to stomach
    -conditioning takes hundreds of trials
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52
Q

Describe eye blink conditioning (in general)

A

-puff of air to eye (US) innately produces eyeblink (UR)

-CS is a tone or light, comes to produce a gradual eye closure (CR)

-A form of aversive conditioning:
CS->CR prepares to avoid US

-Works on rabbits and humans, but takes many trials

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53
Q

The effectiveness of the CS ..

A

builds gradually over many pairings with the US

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54
Q

In most cases, CC builds…

A

-gradually over many trials

-Initially, CS exposure never produces a CR

-Over time, nearly ever CS produces a CR

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55
Q

true or false:The CR can be very different from the UR

A

TRUE: This is seen in the eye movement during CS-US pairings on different days of training

-The unconditioned response is the fast, strong blink occurring at the onset of the US

-Initially (day 1), the CS does not produce any responses

-After extensive training, the CR emerges as a slow squeezing shut of the eye prior to the US

56
Q

Conditioned Compensatory response:

A

A conditioned response that is the OPPOSITE of the unconditioned response, helping to balance/correct for the US-UR reflex

57
Q

What is an example of a conditioned compensatory response:

A
  • Inject adrenaline (unconditioned stimulus) –> heart rate increases (unconditioned response)

-repeat the procedure in the same testing chamber (CS)

-eventually, CS comes to produce a decrease in heart rate that helps maintain HOMEOSTASIS (balance) against expected adrenaline injection

-We observe this as TOLERANCE,as the testing chamber evokes a CR that weakens the overall effects of the drug

58
Q

aside from aversive conditioning, what is another pavlovian conditioned approach?

A

Appetitive conditioning!
A new reflex prepares to obtain the unconditioned stimulus

59
Q

Appetitive conditioning:

A

a new reflex prepares to obtain the unconditioned stimulus

60
Q

Quail sex conditioning is a type of:

A

appetitive conditioning

61
Q

Describe quail sex conditioning

A

-exposure to a female (unconditioned stimulus) innately produces arousal (unconditioned response)

-conditional stimulus is a tone or light

-after pairing the CS with the US, the CS comes to produce APPROACH (CR)

62
Q

What is sign tracking (autoshaping)

A

Tendency to approach appetitive
stimuli (e.g. stimulus that signals food)

light: food -> pecking
light -> pecking, directed at light

63
Q

For sign-tracking to occur, the conditioned stimulus must be:

A

a discrete and localizable stimulus (ex: light)

64
Q

Excitatory pavlovian conditioning, a relationship is learned between:

A

The conditional stimulus and the PRESENTATION of an unconditional stimulus

65
Q

In excitatory pavlovian conditioning, the CS activates a:

A

“neural and behavioural” representation of the unconditioned stimulus, in the absence of the actual presentation of the US

66
Q

In excitatory pavlovian conditioning, the conditioned response is related to:

A

the unconditioned stimulus

67
Q

Excitatory conditioning does not necessarily involve:

A

“excited” behaviour

-if CR is a reduction in behaviour (e.g. freezing), it is still considered excitatory conditioning

68
Q

Excitatory conditioning can occur with A US that is:

A

either appetitive or aversive

69
Q

In excitatory pavlovian conditioning, __ matters

A

timing matters!

70
Q

conditioning trial:

A

A single instance or cycle of presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) together (or separately, depending on the conditioning procedure) to create an association between the two stimuli.

71
Q

Training session

A

A series of conditioning trials conducted in succession

72
Q

Intertrial Interval (ITI):

A

The time period between the end of one conditioning trial and the beginning of the next trial. It represents the pause or rest period between successive trials.

73
Q

Interstimulus Interval (ISI) or CS-US Interval:

A

The time interval between the onset of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US) within a single conditioning trial. The length of this interval can impact the strength of the conditioned response.

74
Q

What are the five types of excitatory pavlovian conditioning procedures?

A

(1) short delayed conditioning
(2)long-delayed conditioning
(3) trace conditioning
(4) simultaneous conditioning
(5)backward conditioning

75
Q

Describe short delayed conditioning:

A

-The most frequently used procedure for pavlovian conditioning

-Involves delaying the start of the US slightly after the start of the CS on each trial

-CS starts each trial and US is presented after a brief delay (less than 1 min)

-The CS may continue during the US or end when the US begins

76
Q

Describe trace conditioning:

A

Similar to the short-delayed procedure in that the CS is presented first and followed
BUT
there is a gap between the CS and US

77
Q

Describe long-delayed conditioning:

A
  • CS presented before the US
    -The US is delayed much longer (5 minutes or more)
    -NO trace interval: CS lasts until US begins
78
Q

Describe simultaneous conditioning:

A

CS and US presented at the same time
CS and US represented concurrently

79
Q

Describe backward conditioning:

A

US presented before the CS

80
Q

Why is the prefrontal cortex important in trace conditioning?

A

It plays a role in working memory and the ability to maintain a representation of the CS during the trace interval.

81
Q

In short delayed conditioning, the inter stimulus interval is:

A

less than 1 minute

82
Q

In long-delayed conditioning, the inter stimulus interval is:

A

greater than 5 minutes

83
Q

Bernstein IL

A

earned taste aversions in children
receiving chemotherapy.

84
Q

Why are control procedures needed?

A

(1) pseudoconditioning
(2) sensitization

85
Q

Pseudconditioning (1/2 reasons why we need control procedures)

A

Definition: Pseudoconditioning occurs when an organism shows an increased response to a stimulus not because of a learned association between the CS and the US, but simply due to repeated exposure to the unconditioned stimulus (US) itself.

For example, if a loud noise (US) is repeatedly presented, a rat might begin to respond more strongly to any stimulus (e.g., a light or a tone) presented in the same session, even if no direct association has been formed between the light or tone and the US.

Causative Factor: In pseudoconditioning, the repeated presentation of the US alone sensitizes the organism, making it more likely to respond to any stimulus, even if that stimulus was never directly paired with the US.

86
Q

Sensitization (2/2 reason why we need control procedures)

A

Δ in responding to repeated presentations of a CS
(e.g., under conditions of heightened arousal)
* Either the CS or US may be salient enough to cause
arousal

87
Q

what are two control procedures?

A

(1) Random control procedure
(2) explicitly unpaired control

88
Q

Random control procedure:

A

-Present the US periodically during BOTH the CS and the ITI

–> this way the CS does not signal an increase in probability that the US will occur

89
Q

Explicitly unpaired control

A

Present the CS and the US on SEPERATE trials
* No conditioning because CS and US never
presented during the same trial

90
Q

Evaluative conditioning:

A

Changing the hedonic value or liking of an initially neutral stimulus by having that stimulus associated with something that is already liked or disliked.

91
Q

Goal tracking:

A

Conditioned behavior elicited by a CS that consists of approaching the location where the US is usually presented.

92
Q

Inhibitory conditioning:

A

A type of classical conditioning in which the CS becomes a signal for the absence of the US.

93
Q

Define latency:

A

The time elapsed between a stimulus (or the start of a trial) and the response that is made to the stimulus.

94
Q

Define Probability:

A

% of trials where CR is exhibited
– e.g., in eye-blink conditioning

95
Q

Define magnitude:

A

Size, vigor, or length of CR

96
Q

object learning

A

Learning associations between differ- ent stimulus features of an object, such as what it looks like and how it tastes.

97
Q

Autoshaping is the same as:

A

sign tracking

98
Q

How can we measure conditioned responses (4)?

A
  • Test Trial: presentation of the CS without the US
  1. Magnitude -> Size, vigor, or length of CR
    – e.g., drops of saliva, duration of freezing
  2. Probability > % of trials where CR is exhibited
    – e.g., in eye-blink conditioning
  3. Latency -> How soon after CS does a CR occur
    – e.g., port-entry response
99
Q

Inhibitory Pavlovian Conditioning:

A

The process by which a CS comes to
predict the absence of a US

100
Q

Inhibitory Pavlovian conditioning can only occur if

A

there is an expectation of a US
– i.e., in an excitatory context

CS+ -> US, then add CS-

101
Q

In inhibitory pavlovian conditioning: Us more like to appear when:

A

CS is not presented

102
Q

in inhibitory pavlovian conditioning the CS will

A

inhibit the behaviour that is elicited by the US

103
Q

What are the two inhibitory pavlovian conditioning procedures?

A
  1. Standard CI procedure (Pavlov)
  2. Negative CS-US correlation
104
Q

Negative CS-US correlation

A
  • Where’s the CS+?
  • The environmental context forms the excitatory
    context for the inhibition
  • The CS- decreasesthe probability that the US will occur
105
Q

How do we measure inhibitory pavlovian conditioning (3)?

A

(1) bidirectional response systems
(2) Compound stimulus (or summation)test
(3) retardation of acquisition

106
Q

Describe bidirectional response systems:

A

Certain behavioural responses are bi-directional
– e.g., approach/withdrawal; drink more or less; heart
rate increase/decrease

107
Q

example of a response with low baseline:

A

eyeblink

108
Q

example of a response with no true opposite:

A

freezing

109
Q

A particularly well-controlled demonstration of conditioned inhibition using the compound-stimulus or summation test was reported by

A

Cole, Barnet, and Miller

110
Q

what is the standard procedure for measuring inhibitory pavlovian conditioning

A

Compound-Stimulus (or Summation) Test:

111
Q

Retardation of Acquisition Test

A
112
Q

Probability of a response:

A

The likelihood of making the response, usually represented in terms of the per- centage of trials on which the response occurs.

113
Q

pseudo-conditioning

A

Increased responding that may occur to a stimulus whose presentations are intermixed with presentations of a US in the absence of the establishment of an association between the stimulus and the US.

114
Q

random control procedure

A

A procedure in which the CS and US are presented at random times with respect to each other.

115
Q

Retardation of acquisition test

A

A test procedure that identifies a stimulus as a conditioned inhibitor if that stimulus is slower to acquire excitatory properties than a comparison stimulus.

116
Q

define sign tracking:

A

Movement toward and possibly contact with a STIMULUS that signals the availability of a positive reinforcer, such as food
Also called autoshaping

117
Q

temporal coding hypothesis

A

The idea that Pavlovian conditioning procedures lead not only to learning that the US happens but exactly when it occurs in relation to the CS. The CS represents (or codes) the timing of the US.

118
Q

Test trial

A

A trial in which the CS is presented without the US. This allows measurement of the CR in the absence of the UR

119
Q

trace interval

A

A classical conditioning procedure in which the US is presented after the CS has been terminated for a short period.

120
Q

unconditional or unconditioned response (UR)

A

A response that occurs to a stimulus without the necessity of prior training.

121
Q

unconditional or unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

A stimulus that elicits a particular response without the necessity of prior training.

122
Q

Can inhibitory pavlovian conditioning be aversive and appetitive conditioning?

A

yes; associate period of no shock (Aversive)

associate with abence of food (appetitive)

123
Q

In Negative CS-US correlation, what is the excitatory context for the inhibition?

A

the environment

124
Q

In negative CS-US correlation, the CS - :

A

decreases the probability that the US will occur

125
Q

What are the two techniques for eliminating a conditioned response?

A

(1) extinction
(2) counterconditioning

126
Q

describe extinction (1 of 2 ways to eliminate a response)

A

Weakening of a learned response that occurs
when the CS (e.g., can opener) is repeatedly
presented without the US (e.g., cat food)

127
Q

is extinction dependable ?

A

no! - undependable / does not always work

128
Q

What makes a CR
more resistant to extinction?

A

Inconsistent initial conditioning ->CS presented alone sometimes and other
times with US

129
Q

avoidance behaviour (extinction)

A

People often avoid stimuli they fear, which can lead to a lack of positive experiences associated with that stimulus.

This avoidance behavior can hinder the extinction process because the individual rarely encounters the CS in a safe context where no aversive outcome occurs.

For instance, someone who is afraid of dogs may avoid them entirely, resulting in fewer opportunities to form positive associations with dogs, making it harder to extinguish their fear.

130
Q

describe counterconditioning (eliminating a conditioned response)

A

replace an old response with a new, more productive response
– More effective than extinction

Make sure stimulus eliciting new response is stronger

131
Q

Mary Cover Jones:

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first applications of counterconditioning
bunny cookie experiment

132
Q
A
132
Q

The Threshold Method, particularly in the context of Systematic Desensitization, is

A

a widely used therapeutic technique for treating phobias and anxiety disorders.

133
Q
A
133
Q

Steps in Systematic Desensitization:

A

Relaxation Training:
The first step is teaching the individual relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or visualization of a “happy place.” This helps create a calm state that can counteract anxiety.
Creating an Anxiety Hierarchy:
The therapist collaborates with the individual to develop a hierarchy of fear-inducing stimuli related to the phobia. This list ranks stimuli from least to most anxiety-provoking (e.g., thinking about the feared object, viewing pictures, being in the same room, and finally direct exposure).
Gradual Exposure:
Starting with the least anxiety-provoking item on the hierarchy, the individual is exposed to the stimulus while practicing relaxation techniques. They are encouraged to stay relaxed and calm as they confront the feared stimulus.
Once the individual can face the first item without significant anxiety, they gradually progress to the next item on the hierarchy, increasing the intensity of the exposure over time.

Fundamentals of Learning (10 decks)

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