Chapter 7 Flashcards
Learning
Lasting change as a result of practice, study, or experience.
Associative learning
A change as a result of experience where two or more stimuli become linked.
Non-associative learning
Learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli; it is a change resulting from experiences with a single sensory cue.
Classical conditioning
The association of two stimuli.
Operant conditioning
A form of associative learning where behavior is modified depending on its consequences.
Observational learning
Learning by observing others.
Spatial navigation
Learning to navigate and remember spatial information.
Implicit learning
Learning that occurs without conscious awareness.
Latent learning
Learning that is not immediately expressed in behavior.
Insight learning
A sudden realization or understanding of a problem or concept.
Practices for learning
Strategies or techniques used to enhance learning.
Pre and postnatal learning
Learning that occurs before and after birth.
Specific learning disorders
Disorders that affect the acquisition and use of specific skills or abilities.
Habituation
Weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated presentation.
Dishabituation
A form of non-associative learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation.
Sensitization
A strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli.
Classical conditioning
The association of two stimuli.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that on its own elicits a response.
Unconditioned response (UR)
A physical response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; it does not need to be learned.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired.
Conditioned response (CR)
A physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it is usually the same as the unconditioned response.
UCS
Unconditioned stimulus.
UCR
Unconditioned response.
CS
Conditioned stimulus.
CR
Conditioned response.
Acquisition
The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship.
Extinction
Reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone.
Spontaneous recovery
Re-emergence of a conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred.
Stimulus generalization
When similar stimuli elicit the same response as a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has occurred.
Stimulus discrimination
An organism learns to emit a specific behavior in the presence of a stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the original stimulus.
Higher-order conditioning
Occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning.
Phobia
Persistent, irrational or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation that may arise as a result of fear conditioning.
Systematic desensitization
A process used to condition extinction of phobias through gradual exposure to the feared object or situation.
Conditioned taste aversion
A form of classical conditioning where a previously neutral stimulus elicits an aversive reaction after it’s paired with illness.
Law of effect
Behaviors leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviors producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.
Reinforcer
An experience that produces an increase in a certain behavior.
Positive reinforcement
Presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behavior to increase the probability that the behavior will reoccur.
Negative reinforcement
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behavior will reoccur.
Punishment
An experience that produces a decrease in a certain behavior.
Positive punishment
Presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a behavior to decrease the probability of the behavior being repeated.
Negative punishment
Removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behavior to decrease the probability of the behavior being repeated.
Positive reinforcement
The addition of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Negative reinforcement
The removal of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Positive punishment
The addition of a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Negative punishment
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Primary reinforcers
Stimuli that have survival value and are inherently rewarding, such as food and water.
Secondary reinforcers
Neutral stimuli that become rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer, such as money or praise.
Primary punishers
Stimuli that are naturally aversive to an organism, such as slapping or electric shock.
Secondary punishers
Stimuli that become aversive when associated with a primary punisher, such as disapproval or criticism.
Continuous reinforcement
Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, leading to quicker training.
Intermittent reinforcement
Behavior is only followed by reinforcement some of the time, making behaviors harder to extinguish.
Fixed ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses, resulting in a high rate of responding with pauses.
Variable ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, average number of responses, resulting in a high, steady rate of responding.
Fixed interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed time has elapsed.
Variable interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after varying lengths of time.
Shaping
Introducing new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior until the complete behavioral sequence emerges.
Behaviour modification
A systematic approach to change behavior using principles of operant conditioning, such as teaching new skills or modifying undesirable behaviors.
Observational learning
Learning that occurs without overt training in response to watching the behavior of others.
Modelling
Learning that occurs when an observer learns from the behavior of another.
Vicarious learning
Learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences of another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate or refrain from doing so.
Implicit learning
The acquisition of information without awareness, such as learning to talk or walk.
Latent learning
Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not used until called for.
Insight learning
A sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts.
Behaviourism
the systematic study and manipulation of observable behaviour.
Conditioning
the association of events in the environment.
disorder of written expression
a disorder experienced as impairment in the ability to create the written word.
learned helplessness
a situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape attempts.
mathematics disorder
a deficit in mathematical ability, including the ability to do calculations, as well as the ability to understand mathematical word problems and mathematical concepts.
mirror neurons
neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action.
natural reflex
an automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning.
reading disorder
a deficit in reading comprehension, written spelling, and word recognition.
