Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

How do scientists study the human brain and nervous system?

A

Scientists use advanced tools and methods like neuroimaging to explore the brain and nervous system.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What challenges did researchers face in the past when studying the human brain?

A

studying the human brain without causing damage due to the limitations of study methods and technologies.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the historical methods researchers used to study the brain?

A

Researchers studied the brain by looking at tissue from autopsies, observing how patients with brain damage behaved, and recording brain activity with EEG.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the drawback of recording electrical brain activity through EEG?

A

EEG provides only a summary of surface brain activity, making it challenging to pinpoint deep brain activity accurately.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are some modern neuroimaging techniques used to study the brain?

A

Modern neuroimaging techniques include MRI, fMRI, CT scans, PET scans, TMS, and DTI, each with its advantages and limitations.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

How does functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) differ from other brain imaging techniques?

A

fMRI combines the clarity of MRI for anatomical imaging with the ability to measure real-time activity in specific brain areas during tasks or behaviors.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Why is it important to choose the right technique for studying the brain?

A

Researchers should choose the right methods for their study by thinking about things like how easy it is to access, how much it costs, and the kind of information they require.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Who is Dr. Wilder Penfield, and what is he known for?

A

Dr. Wilder Penfield was a neurosurgeon known for his groundbreaking work in treating epilepsy by identifying and removing specific brain areas that caused seizures.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is the significance of Dr. Penfield’s work in understanding the brain?

A

Dr. Penfield’s research was crucial for treating epilepsy but didn’t uncover how the brain stores complex thoughts. That understanding has improved with modern neuroscience studies.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the two main components of the human nervous system?

A

The two main components of the human nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of?

A

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the key types of neurons responsible for transmitting information in the nervous system?

A

Afferent neurons: Carry sensory info to the CNS.

Efferent neurons: Send info from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons: Link various neurons together.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS) composed of?

A

Somatic nervous system: Handles senses and movement.

Autonomic nervous system: Takes care of automatic, involuntary functions..

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system, and what functions do they serve?

A

The autonomic nervous system has two parts: the sympathetic nervous system (kicks in during stress) and the parasympathetic nervous system (operates when you’re at rest).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What physiological changes occur when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?

A

When the sympathetic nervous system activates, it initiates the “fight-or-flight” response, causing effects such as a faster heart rate, dilated pupils, heightened breathing, and the release of glucose for energy.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system in the body?

A

The parasympathetic nervous system assists in bringing the body back to its relaxed state and is often called the “rest and digest” system.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

How can social situations, like public speaking, activate the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Social situations that evoke fear of embarrassment can activate the sympathetic nervous system, leading to stress responses.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is the function of the spinal cord in the central nervous system?

A

The spinal cord processes sensory and motor information, helps with reflexes, and links the brain to the body.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is a pain reflex, and how does it illustrate the role of the spinal cord in quick reactions?

A

A pain reflex, such as quickly pulling your foot away from a tack, involves the spinal cord in generating rapid responses without brain involvement.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What happens when there is spinal cord damage, and how does the location of the damage affect the individual’s condition?

A

Spinal cord damage can result in paralysis and loss of sensation. The location of the damage affects the extent of paralysis.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What promising developments have been made in the treatment of spinal cord injuries?

A

Progress comes in the form of epidural electrical stimulation, neural bypasses, and stem cell treatments for spinal cord recovery.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What is the hindbrain, and what are its main components?

A

The hindbrain is the part of the brain closest to the spinal cord, consisting of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is the primary function of the medulla?

A

The medulla regulates basic bodily functions such as respiration, heart rate, and reflexes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is the role of the pons in the brain?

A

The pons acts as a bridge between the medulla and other brain areas, playing a role in sleep, dreaming, breathing, and more.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

The cerebellum is responsible for motor coordination, learning, and certain types of movement-related tasks.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What is the reticular formation, and what are its functions?

A

The reticular formation is a neural network extending from the hindbrain to midbrain, regulating consciousness, arousal, and various bodily functions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What structures are found in the midbrain, and what roles do they play in movement?

A

The midbrain houses the substantia nigra, which is crucial for smooth movement, and contains dopamine-producing neurons that are essential for motor control.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What is the thalamus, and what is its primary role?

A

The thalamus is a collection of nuclei serving as a relay station for incoming sensory information, except for the sense of smell.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

How does the hypothalamus contribute to motivation and regulation of the endocrine system?

A

The hypothalamus controls motivated behaviors like eating, drinking, and sex, and plays a role in regulating hormones throughout the body.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What is the connection between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland?

A

The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland, which produces hormones and controls various endocrine glands.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What is the limbic system, and what functions does it regulate?

A

The limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory regulation.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is the role of the amygdala in the brain?

A

The amygdala processes information about emotions, particularly fear, and has a role in the development of phobias.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What is the primary function of the hippocampus?

A

The hippocampus is crucial for certain types of learning and memory, including episodic memory and spatial navigation.

34
Q

What is the basal ganglia, and what functions does it serve in the brain?

A

The basal ganglia is a group of nuclei involved in cognitive flexibility, voluntary movement control, and reward learning.

35
Q

What is the cerebral cortex, and what are its primary functions?

A

The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the brain, responsible for complex functions such as language, thought, and consciousness.

36
Q

What is the main function of the occipital lobe in the brain?

A

The occipital lobe processes visual information and plays a key role in visual perception.

37
Q

What is the fundamental building block of the nervous system?

A

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system.

38
Q

What is the role of neurons in the nervous system?

A

Neurons are responsible for communication within the nervous system, enabling normal brain and spinal cord functioning.

39
Q

What are dendrites, and what is their function in neurons?

A

Dendrites are specialized structures that extend from the cell body of neurons and receive inputs from other neurons.

40
Q

What is the function of axons in neurons?

A

Axons carry signals away from the cell body of neurons and transmit these signals to other neurons through their specialized terminals.

41
Q

What are synapses, and what happens at these structures?

A

Synapses are specialized structures at the end of axons where information is transmitted from one neuron to another through the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.

42
Q

What is the purpose of myelin sheath in neurons?

A

Myelin sheath, found in some axons, insulates and speeds up the passage of electrical signals down the axon, facilitating efficient communication between neurons.

43
Q

What is multiple sclerosis, and how does it relate to myelin?

A

Multiple sclerosis is a worsening condition where the protective myelin covering on nerve cell axons is lost, resulting in inefficient transmission of electrical signals and causing various symptoms.

44
Q

What is the role of oligodendroglia and Schwann cells in the nervous system?

A

Oligodendroglia (central nervous system) and Schwann cells (peripheral nervous system) provide a protective myelin sheath around axons, insulating and speeding up signal transmission.

45
Q

What are ependymal cells, and where are they found?

A

Ependymal cells are special support cells that form a lining along the brain ventricles, release cerebrospinal fluid, and play a role in the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier.

46
Q

What is the function of microglia in the nervous system?

A

Microglia are small cells responsible for cleaning up debris from degenerating or dead neurons and glia, helping maintain normal brain functioning and defending against infection and illness.

47
Q

What is the primary function of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)?

A

Neurons in the CNS process all motor, sensory, and cognitive information that enters, leaves, or is created within the CNS.

48
Q

How many types of neurons are estimated to be in the human brain, and what is the approximate total number of neurons in the brain?

A

There are about 200 specific types of neurons, totaling approximately 86 billion neurons in the human brain, each communicating with thousands to hundreds of thousands of other neurons.

49
Q

How do neurons communicate with each other?

A

Neurons communicate via complex electrochemical interactions. An electrical signal (action potential) is generated at the cell body, travels down the axon, and neurotransmitters are released at the axon terminals, which affect the next neuron’s electrical activity.

50
Q

What is the resting potential of a neuron, and what is its typical range?

A

The resting potential is the electrical charge of a neuron when it is at rest. It typically ranges between -65mV and -70mV.

51
Q

What is the role of ions in the resting potential of a neuron?

A

Ions, both positively charged sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions, play a crucial role in maintaining the resting potential. Large negatively charged proteins (A−) are primarily inside the cell.

52
Q

How does the semi-permeable membrane contribute to the resting potential?

A

The semi-permeable membrane regulates the flow of ions. It keeps some ions inside and some outside the neuron when channels in the membrane stay closed.

53
Q

What is the significance of electrostatic pressure and concentration gradients in ion movement?

A

Electrostatic pressure drives ions of similar charge away from each other or attracts ions of opposite charges. Concentration gradients cause ions to move from areas of high concentration to low concentration, helping maintain the resting potential.

54
Q

How does the sodium-potassium pump contribute to the resting potential?

A

Sodium-potassium pumps push sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions back into the cell, maintaining the Na+/K+ balance and helping to keep the resting potential.

55
Q

Action Potential

A

A sudden positive change in the electrical charge of a neuron’s axon, also known as a spike or firing, which rapidly transmits signals down the axon.

56
Q

Threshold

A

The point at which the influence of other neurons succeeds in causing a neuron to initiate an action potential.

57
Q

All-or-None Principle

A

The principle that action potentials are either initiated or not; they do not vary in strength. The frequency and pattern of action potentials convey information about stimulus intensity.

58
Q

Myelin

A

A fatty, insulating substance produced by glial cells that surrounds and insulates axons, allowing action potentials to travel more rapidly through a process called saltatory conduction.

59
Q

Synapses

A

Tiny gaps between neurons where chemical communication occurs through neurotransmitters.

60
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Specialized chemicals that travel across synapses to enable communication between neurons.

61
Q

Neurotransmitter Receptors

A

Proteins in the cell membrane of neurons that recognize specific neurotransmitters, binding in a lock-and-key fashion to transmit excitatory or inhibitory signals.

62
Q

Termination of Neurotransmitter Activity

A

Processes that end neurotransmitter activity at the synapse, either through enzymatic degradation or reuptake, allowing for subsequent signaling.

63
Q

Major Neurotransmitters

A

Key neurotransmitters with distinct functions in the brain, including acetylcholine (ACh), dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate.

64
Q

Neural Networks

A

Collections of interconnected neurons that communicate with one another, forming patterns of neural activity for complex cognitive and behavioral functions.

65
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

The brain’s ability to reorganize neural connections in response to experiences, environmental changes, or injuries, including synaptic plasticity, where synapses can change their efficiency.

66
Q

What is Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)?

A

Brain injuries caused by external physical forces like concussions or head injuries.

67
Q

What is Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)?

A

Brain injuries resulting from factors other than physical trauma, such as infections, toxins, tumors, degenerative diseases, or strokes.

68
Q

What are the two categories of Acquired Brain Injuries?

A

Infections and Toxins. Infections can lead to inflammation (e.g., meningitis), while toxins come from various sources and can cause brain damage.

69
Q

What are some examples of Degenerative Diseases/Disorders?

A

Common ones include Parkinson’s disease (dopamine neuron loss), Alzheimer’s disease (acetylcholine neuron loss), and multiple sclerosis (myelin sheath degradation).

70
Q

What are Brain Tumors?

A

Masses of abnormal cells growing in the CNS, which can be either cancerous (malignant) or noncancerous (benign).

71
Q

What are the two main causes of a Stroke?

A

Ischemic stroke (artery blockage) and hemorrhagic stroke (artery rupture).

72
Q

What are the common signs of a Stroke?

A

Sudden numbness or weakness on one side of the body, slurred speech, extreme headache, changes in vision, and cognitive confusion.

73
Q

What are the treatment options for Brain Injury?

A

Initial treatment may include drug therapies and cooling to reduce swelling. Long-term rehabilitation often involves behavioral therapies like yoga and cognitive rehabilitation strategies.

74
Q

What is Brain Lateralization?

A

It’s the concept of specialized functions in different areas of the brain. However, both hemispheres actively participate in most functions, and there’s no strict “left-brained” or “right-brained” dominance.

75
Q

How do the two brain hemispheres communicate?

A

They communicate via the corpus callosum, allowing both sides to work together in most activities.

76
Q

What is the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)?

A

LUCA refers to the last common ancestor from which all life on Earth is believed to have descended.

77
Q

What are homologous characteristics?

A

Homologous characteristics are traits that are similar between species and can be traced back to a common ancestor.

78
Q

How did Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution contribute to our understanding of species development?

A

Darwin’s theory of evolution introduced the concept of natural selection, where animals that are best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their traits to their offspring.

79
Q

How has the human brain evolved compared to other species?

A

The human brain has a larger cortex relative to other species, especially in modern humans, with about 80% of the brain consisting of the cortex.

80
Q

What is the significance of the cortex in the human brain?

A

The cortex is responsible for many of the social and technological advancements in modern humans, including complex societies, tool use, and language development.