Chapter 6 - Quiz 3

Question 1

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Physics and Psychology of sound

What are sound waves?

Answer 1

-periodic compressions of air, water or other media

-vary in amplitude and frequency

Question 2

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Physics and Psychology of sound

Define amplitude

Answer 2

-the intensity of a sound wave or height of the wave

–in general, sounds of greater amplitude seem louder, but exceptions occur

Question 3

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Physics and Psychology of sound

Define frequency and what its measured in? (2)

Answer 3

-number of compressions per second
-measured in hertz

-sounds higher in frequency are higher in pitch

-a graph of lower frequency would be less waves per distance, so think of less choppy water

Question 4

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Physics and Psychology of sound

Define pitch

Answer 4

-related aspect of perception

Question 5

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Physics and Psychology of sound

Define timbre

Answer 5

-tone quality or complexity

-how someone can tell the difference between a piano and violin playing the same note at the same volume

Question 6

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Physics and Psychology of sound

Define prosody

Answer 6

-when someone conveys emotional information by tone of voice

Question 7

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What are the three main parts of the ear anatomically distinguished by anatomists?

Answer 7

-Outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.

Question 8

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What is a part of the outer ear?

Answer 8

-pinna and auditory canal

Question 9

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What is part of the middle ear?

Answer 9

-tympanic membrane and ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup)

Question 10

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What structures are part of the inner ear?

Answer 10

-cochlea, oval window, hair cells, auditory nerve

Question 11

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What is the function of the pinna in the outer ear?

Answer 11

-helps locate the source of a sound by altering the reflections of sound waves.

-Each person’s pinna is uniquely shaped, requiring individual learning to use this information effectively
-Rabbits have large, movable pinnas for more precise sound localization.

Question 12

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What role does the tympanic membrane play in the middle ear?

-aka eardrum

Answer 12

-vibrates in response to sound waves and transmits these vibrations to the three tiny bones in the middle ear.

Question 13

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What are the three tiny bones in the middle ear called? In English and Latin? (2)

Answer 13

-hammer, anvil, and stirrup
-malleus, incus, and stapes

Question 14

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

How do the three tiny bones in the middle ear amplify sound?

Answer 14

-They transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window with increased force, converting sound waves into waves of greater pressure.

-The tympanic membrane is about 20 times larger than the footplate of the stirrup, amplifying the vibrations like a hydraulic pump.

Question 15

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What happens when the stirrup vibrates the oval window in the inner ear?

Answer 15

-It sets the fluid in the cochlea into motion, which displaces the hair cells and opens ion channels in their membranes.

Question 16

6.1 Sound and the Ear: Structures of the Ear

What do the hair cells stimulate and where are they located between? (2)

Answer 16

-stimulate the auditory nerve (part of the eighth cranial nerve)
-located between the basilar and tectorial membranes of the cochlea

Question 17

6.1 Pitch Perception

What is place theory in hearing and how does it explain our perception of different pitches? What is an example? (3)

Answer 17

-Theory: Different parts of the cochlea are activated by different sound frequencies.
-How: Pitch is determined by where hair cells are stimulated along the cochlea.
-Example: In the scenario of a party with a DJ booth where high-energy music with thumping bass is played, the sensation of feeling the bass more intensely near the DJ booth corresponds to the place theory, where the location of stronger vibrations along the basilar membrane indicates higher pitch perception in our brain.

-High-frequency sounds activate the base; low-frequency sounds activate the apex.
-This mapping helps us distinguish different pitches.
-each frequency activates the hair cells at only one place along the basilar membrane, and the nervous system distinguishes among frequencies based on which neurons respond.

Question 18

6.1 Pitch Perception

What is the downfall of place theory?

Answer 18

-various parts of the basilar membrane are bound too tightly for any part to resonate like a piano string

-Essentially, the downfall indicates a discrepancy between the proposed mechanism of the theory and the physical structure of the basilar membrane.

Question 19

6.1 Pitch Perception

What is frequency theory in hearing? What is an example? (2)

Answer 19

-Theory: entire basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency
-Example: In the context of people clapping at a party to music, where each clap represents a sound wave, the frequency theory suggests that the pitch we perceive is determined by the speed of the claps; thus, in slower music, like a gentle song, where claps occur at a slow, steady pace, our brain interprets the low pitch due to this steady rhythm.

-for example, a sound at 50 Hz would cause 50 action potentials per second in the auditory nerve

Question 20

6.1 Pitch Perception

What is the downfall of frequency theory?

Answer 20

-the refractory period of a neuron is typically much lower than the highest Hz of frequencies we hear

-its usually around 1000 Hz, but we can hear much higher frequencies

Question 21

6.1 Pitch Perception

What is the current theory for how we hear things? Explain it for low, higher, and extremely high frequencies? (3)

-The current theory combines elements of the frequency theory and the volley principle.

Answer 21

For low-frequency sounds (up to about 100 Hz):
-frequency theory
At higher frequencies:
-Volley principle explains pitch discrimination up to 4000 Hz.
Beyond 4000 Hz:
-Mechanism similar to place theory used.
-Point of peak vibration on basilar membrane identifies sound frequency.

-soft sounds activate fewer neurons and stronger sounds activate more
-Low frequencies are like synchronized claps representing slower music.
-High frequencies are like claps following the rhythm, even if not perfectly in sync.
-Beyond 4000 Hz, it’s like figuring out the music genre by where the loudest claps are coming from.

Question 22

6.1 Pitch Perception

What is the volley principle? Use an example to explain. (2)

Answer 22

-theory: auditory nerve produces volleys of impulse for sounds up to about 4000 per second
-Example: Imagine a relay race where runners pass a baton to keep up speed. Similarly, groups of neurons take turns firing to keep pace with high-frequency sounds. While no single neuron fires at the sound’s frequency, together they create a volley of impulses to match it.

-The volley principle explains how groups of neurons work together to perceive pitch.
-volleys of impulses for sounds up to about 4000 per second, even though no individual axon approaches that frequency

Question 23

6.1 Pitch Perception Stop and Check 191

Through which mechanism do we perceive low-frequency sounds (up to about 100 Hz)?

Answer 23

-At low frequencies, the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with the sound waves, and each responding axon in the auditory nerve sends one action potential per sound wave.

-frequency theory

Question 24

6.1 Pitch Perception Stop and Check Pg 191

How do we perceive middle-frequency sounds? (100-4000 Hz)?

Answer 24

-At intermediate frequencies, no single axon fires an action potential for each sound wave, but different axons fire for different waves, and so a volley (group) of axons fires for each wave.

-volley principle

Question 25

6.1 Pitch Perception Stop and Check Pg 191

How do we perceive high-frequency sounds above 4000 Hz?

Answer 25

-At high frequencies, the sound causes maximum vibration for the hair cells at one location along the basilar membrane.

-similar to place theory

Question 26

6.1 Auditory Complex

Explain the mechanism by which information from the auditory system is processed in the brain, including the role of subcortical areas and the midbrain. What is the point of this mechanism? (2)

Answer 26

-Information from the auditory system undergoes processing in the brain through subcortical areas, with axons crossing over in the midbrain to enable each hemisphere of the forebrain to receive input from the opposite ear.
-This mechanism ensures efficient processing of auditory information in the brain.

-When you hear something, like a bird singing, the sound travels from your ears to deeper parts of your brain. Along the way, the brain makes sure that both sides get information from both ears. So, if the bird is on your left, your right brain also knows about it. This helps your brain quickly make sense of what you’re hearing.

Question 27

6.1 Auditory Cortex

How does the organization of the auditory cortex parallel the visual cortex? What are the seperate pathways? (3)

Answer 27

-the visual and auditory system both have seperate pathways for identifying objects and acting upon them as well as similar consequences to damage (motion deaf)
-pathway in anterior temporal cortex for identifying sounds
-pathway in posterior temporal cortex and parietal cortex for locating sound

Question 28

6.1 Auditory Cortex

Discuss the role of area A1 in auditory processing, including its response to both real and imagined sounds as described in the text.

Answer 28

-A1 (primary auditory cortex) responds not only to real sounds but also imagined

Question 29

6.1 Auditory Cortex

How does experience influence the development of the auditory system? Use an example.

Answer 29

-rearing an animal in constant noise environments makes it harder for them to identify individual sounds

-Experience shapes auditory development like it does with vision.

Question 30

6.1 Auditory Cortex

Explain the functional differences between damage to the primary visual cortex (area V1) and the primary auditory cortex in terms of resulting sensory deficits. What do individuals with damage to the primary auditory cortex have trouble with? (2)

Answer 30

-Unlike damage to the primary visual cortex causing blindness, damage to the primary auditory cortex doesn’t lead to deafness.
-instead, individuals with damage to this area struggle with speech and music perception, but can still identify and localize single sounds, indicating the cortex’s role in processing rather than sensory reception.

Question 31

6.1 Auditory Cortex

Describe the concept of tonotopic mapping in the auditory cortex and how it relates to the processing of different frequencies of sound. Why does it happen? (2)

Answer 31

-Tonotopic mapping in the auditory cortex refers to the spatial arrangement of cells responsive to specific frequencies of sound.
-Cells sensitive to similar frequencies tend to cluster together, forming a spatial representation of the frequency spectrum.

Question 32

6.1 Auditory Cortex

Discuss the preference of auditory cortex cells for a particular type of cell (complex or simple)

Answer 32

-Auditory cortex cells exhibit a preference for complex sounds over single tones, responding best to sounds with dominant tones and harmonics.

Question 33

6.1 Auditory Cortex

Analyze the significance of the study involving individuals with damage to the auditory cortex and their ability to process words related to sounds, in the context of understanding the role of sensory associations in human concepts. What is its signifigance? (2)

Answer 33

-The study shows that when people can’t imagine sounds, words about sounds lose their meaning.
-It reminds us how our senses and words are linked.

-the study supports the theory that human concepts rely on associations with the sensations or actions that initially established them, if you cannot imagine sound then a word relating to sound seems meaningless

Question 34

6.1 Stop and Check Pg 193

List the four ways the auditory cortex is like the visual cortex.

Answer 34

-Both seeing and hearing have pathways for “what” (identifying) and “where” (locating).
-Parts of the brain’s superior temporal cortex handle movement for both sights and sounds. If damaged, it can lead to trouble seeing motion (motion blindness) or hearing it (motion deafness).
-The part of the brain responsible for sight is crucial for imagining visuals, while the part for hearing is crucial for imagining sounds.
-Both the brain areas for seeing and hearing need regular experiences early in life to develop properly.

Question 35

6.1 Sound Localization

How does the human brain determine the direction and distance of a sound?

Answer 35

-By comparing the responses of the two ears.

Question 36

6.1 Sound Localization

What are the three methods explained that help to figure out where sound is coming from? (3)

Answer 36

-difference in time of arrival at the two ears
-difference in intensity between the ears
-phase difference between the ears

Question 37

6.1 Sound Localization

Explain how the time of arrival of a sound for both ears helps you differentiate location.

Answer 37

-If a sound reaches one ear before the other, it indicates the direction of the sound.

Question 38

6.1 Sound localization

How does the difference in intensity between the ears aid in determining location? What is an example? (2)

-bird song example

Answer 38

-The difference in intensity between the ears, caused by the head creating a sound shadow, helps localize high-frequency sounds.

-works best for Hz above 2000 - 3000

-Imagine you’re outside and hear a high-pitched bird on your right side. Because your head creates a sound shadow, the sound is louder in your right ear than your left. Your brain detects this difference and helps you locate the bird’s direction.

Question 39

6.1 Sound localization

How does phase difference between the ears assist in locating sound? Example? (2)

Answer 39

-refers to the difference in the timing of sound wave peaks between the ears, providing information for localizing sounds
-Imagine you’re in a room and someone snaps their fingers to your right. The sound waves reach your right ear slightly before they reach your left ear. This small time gap, known as the phase difference, gives your brain information about the direction of the sound cause you hear the sound at different peaks.

-especially those with frequencies up to about 1500 Hz.

Question 40

6.1 Sound Localization

Sum up how we localize low and high frequencies and sudden frequencies. (3)

Answer 40

-low frequencies with phase differences
-high frequencies by loudness difference
-sudden frequencies by time

Question 41

6.1 Sound Localization

What happens if you become deaf in one ear? At first and eventually? How do they localize sounds? (3)

Answer 41

-Initially, all sounds seem to come from the intact ear.
-Eventually, people learn to interpret loudness cues.
-Louder sounds are perceived to come from the intact ear, softer sounds from the opposite side.

Question 42

6.1 Sound localization Stop and CHeck Pg 194

Which method of sound localization is more effective for an animal with a small head? Which is more effective for an animal with a large head? Why? (2)

Answer 42

-An animal with a small head localizes sounds mainly by differences in loudness because the ears are not far enough apart for differences in time to be useful.
-An animal with a large head localizes sounds mainly by differences in time because its ears are far apart and well suited to noting differences in phase or onset time.

Question 43

6.1 Individual Differences

What is Amusia? What do they have trouble recognizing? (2)

AKA tone deafness

Answer 43

-people who struggle to recognize more subtle differences in tones
-trouble recognizing tunes, when someone is singing off key, do not detec a wrong note, trouble gauging peoples mood off tone of voice

-

Question 44

6.1 Individual Differences

How does people with Amusia’s brain differ? Why is this significant? (2)

Answer 44

-auditory cortex appears normal, but fewer connections to the frontal cortex
-shows the deficit is not in hearing itself, but poor memory or attention for pitch

-implication that amusia results from either an impairment of the prefrontal cortex or input to it from the auditory cortex

Question 45

6.1 Individual differences: deafness

What are the two categories of hearing loss?

Answer 45

-conductive deafness or nerve deafness

Question 46

6.1 Individual differences: deafnessq

Explain conductive deafness, what is it and how does it occur and treatment? (3)

-AKA as middle-ear deafness

Answer 46

-What: middle ear is unable to transmit sound waves to the cochlea
-How: Diseases, infectins or tumorous bone growths obstruct/stop this
-Treatment: may be temporary, otherwise surgery or hearing aids

-because people can still hear themselves, since the cochlea is okay and the auditory nerve, they sometimes think people are just mumbling

Question 47

6.1 Individual Differences: Deafness

What is nerve deafness? Explain what, how and treatment. (3)

-AKA as inner-ear deafness

Answer 47

-What is it: damage to the cochlea, hair cells or auditory nerves
-How: inheritance, disease or exposure to loud noises
-Treatment: Preventing further damage, hearing aids or cochlear implant

-if its confined to one part of the cochla, it impairs hearing of certain frequencies and not others

Question 48

6.1 Individual differences: Deafness

What is tinnitus?

Answer 48

-frequent or constant ringing in the ears

-can be sometimes caused by similar process to phantom limb

Question 49

6.1 Individual Differences: Hearing, Attention and Old age

What do some elderly people struggle to hear, despite having hearing aids? Explain how this process comes about? (3)

Answer 49

-filtering out irrelevant noise becomes harder
-language areas of the cortex have become less responsive. –Also, auditory areas of the brain have decreased levels of inhibitory neurotransmitters, and the result is decreased ability to focus attention on one speaker in a noisy environment.

Question 50

6.2 Vestibular Sensation

What does the vestibular organ do for us? What does this help us achieve? (3)

Answer 50

-detects direction of tilt
-amount of acceleration of head
-this info is used for guiding eye movements and maintaining balance

Question 51

6.1 Vestibular Sensation

What does the vestibular organ consist of?

Answer 51

-saccule, utricle, and three semicircular canals

-its a modified touch receptor

Question 52

6.2 Vestibular Sensation

How does the vestibular system tell us which way our head is tilting?

Answer 52

within the utricle and saccule, otoliths lie next to hair cells and push against/excite them when the head moves

-tell the brain which direction you are moving but also record which direction the head titls when you are at rest

Question 53

6.2 Vestibular Sensation

Describe the three semicircular canals

Answer 53

-oriented in three different planes (yes nod, no nod, tilt)
-filled with fluid and lined with hair cells

Question 54

6.2 Vestibular Sensation

How does the vestibular system recognize acceleration of the head?

Answer 54

-acceleration of the head causes fluid in one of these canals to move
-fluid then pushes against the hair cells setting up action potentials

-unlike the saccule and utricle, the semicircular canals record only the amount of acceleration not the position of the head at rest
-they are also insensitive to sustained motion

Question 55

6.2 Vestibular Sensation

Compare the vestibular organ in different animal species.

Answer 55

-nearly the same size for all mammalian species

Question 56

6.2 Vestibular Sensation

People with damage to the vestibular system have trouble reading street signs while walking. Why? (2)

Answer 56

-The vestibular system enables the brain to shift eye movements to compensate for changes in head position.
-Without feedback about head position, a person would not be able to correct the eye movements, and the experience would be like watching a jiggling book page.

Question 57

6.2 Somatosensation

What is the somatosensory system? What does it include? (2)

Answer 57

-sensation of the body and its movements
-many senses including discriminative touch, deep pressure, cold, warmth, pain, itch, tickle and the position and movement of joints

-discriminative touch identifies the shape of an object

Question 58

6.2 Somatosensation: Somatosensory Receptors

What does the Pacinian corpuscles receptor respond to and where is it located? (2)

Answer 58

-responds to vibration or sudden touch
-any skin area

Question 59

6.2 Somatosensation: Somatosensory receptors

How does the Pacinian Corpuscle respond to vibration or sudden touch? Describe

Answer 59

-a sudden/vibrating stimulus bends the neuron membrane, enabling sodium ions to enter, depolarizing the membrane

-this onion like mechanical support of the neuron membrane mean sustained stimulus do not bend the membrane, only sudden movements

Question 60

6.2 Somatosensation: Somatosensory receptors

What does a merkel disk respond to and where is it located?

Answer 60

-static touch, any skin area

-responds to light touch, such as when you feel an object
-for example, women can discern smaller differences in texture because on average, they have smaller hands

Question 61

6.2 Somatosensation: Somatosensory receptors

Explain how the cooling system detects temperature and works in the body? What is an example? (2)

-free nerve endings detect temperature and pain and are in any skin area

Answer 61

-cold sensitive neurons in spinal cord respond to a drop in temperature
-for example, cell would respond to drop from 39 to 33 C or 33 to 27 C

-think of it as change in temperature (delta T)

-on a very hot day, you might detect a breeze as cool even though the air in the breeze is fairly warm
-cold sensitive neurons adapt fairly quickly and show little response to a constant low temperature

Question 62

6.2 Somatosensation: Somatosensory receptors

Explain how the heating system detects temperature and works in the body? What is an example? (2)

-contrasts cooling system in body

Answer 62

-heat sensitive neurons in spinal cord respond to the absolute temperature and do not adapt
-a cell that responds to 44 C will respond the same way regardless of whether the skin was hotter, cooler or the same temperature a minute or two ago

-this is T, vs cooling is change in temperature

Question 63

6.2 Somatosensation: Tickle

What is the difference in your brain’s perception of your own touch and someone elses?

-which is why self-tickling isn’t a thing really

Answer 63

-when you touch yourself, your brain comapres the resulting stimulation to the expected stimulation and generates a weaker somatosensory response than you would experience from an unexpected touch

Question 64

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

Where does information from touch receptors in the head go to? How about from receptors below the head? (2)

Answer 64

-from the head enters the CNS through the cranial nerves
-information from receptors below the head enters the spinal cord and passes toward the brain through any of the 31 spinal nerves

-these 31 nerves include: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal
-each spinal nerve has a sensory component and a motor component

Question 65

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

What does each spinal cord innervate (connect to) on the body?

-a limited area

Answer 65

-Dermatome

-an area that a single spinal nerve connects to
-for example, the third thoracic nerve (T3) innervates a strip of skin just above the nipples as well as the underarm area
-the borders between dermatomes are not so distinct and each dermatome overlaps one-third to one-half of the next dermatome

Question 66

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

Describe the pathway of information starting with somatosensory information, like touch, pressure, or pain.

-start at spinal cord

Answer 66

-travels through the spinal cord in seperate pathways toward thalamus, then to primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe

-two parallel strip along the somatosensory cortex respond mostly to skin touch, another two respond mostly to deep pressure and movement of the joints and muscles
-various aspects of body sensation remain mostly seperate all the way to the cortex

Question 67

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

What is essential for touch experience? Explain this using an example (2)

Answer 67

-the primary somatosensory cortex is essential
-when weak, brief stimuli are applied to the fingers, people are conscious of only those that produce a certain level of arousal in the primary somatosensory cortex

-thr activity in the cortex will respond to what you experience, not necessarily to what has actually stimulated the receptors

Question 68

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

What happens if there is damage to the somatosensory cortex? Give an example. (2)

Answer 68

-impairs body perceptions
-woman couldn’t find elbow, but could point to objects in the room correctly

Question 69

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

In what way is somatosensation several senses instead of one?

Answer 69

-We have several types of receptors, sensitive to touch, heat, and so forth, and different parts of the somatosensory cortex respond to different kinds of skin stimulation.

Question 70

6.2 Somatosensation: in the CNS

How do the responses to skin sensations differ between the somatosensory cortex and the insular cortex of the anterior cingulate cortex?

Answer 70

-The somatosensory cortex is necessary for conscious perception of the location and type of skin sensation vs the insular cortex and anterior cingulate cortex respond to the pleasantness.

Question 71

6.2 Pain: stimuli and spinal cord paths

Describe the pathway for pain. What receptors does it start with and which axons carry it? Which axons convery sharp or less sharp pain? What NT do the sharp/less sharp pain relate to? (4)

Answer 71

-starts with bare nerve endings
-axons carrying pain info have little or no myelin (meaning they conduct impulses relatively slowly)
-thicker axons convey sharp pain, releasing glutamate and neuropeptides like P and CGRP
-thinner axons convey dull pain, releasing glutamate

Question 72

6.2 Pain: stimuli and spinal cord paths

The spinal paths for pain and touch are similar, but what is the important difference?

Answer 72

-pain crosses immediately from receptors on one side of the body to a tract ascending the contralateral side of the spinal cord
-touch info travels up the ipsilateral side of spinal cord to medulla, then crosses to other side

Question 73

6.2 Pain: Emotional pain

Painful stimuli also activate a path that goes through the medulla, thalamus, then to amyygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. What are these areas reacting to? The sensation of pain or the emotional experience of pain?

Answer 73

-the emotional experience of pain

-for example, if someone you love is in pain ou experience sympathetic pain that shows up as activity in your cingulate cortex and other cortical areas
-people with damage to the cingulate gyrus still feel pain, but it no longer distresses them

Question 74

6.2 Pain: Emotional pain

Describe how hurt feelings resemble physical pain in several regards. Use an example of less and then more pain. (2)

Answer 74

-the ball tossing experiment where someone was left out found that there was activity in the cingulate cortex (emotional pain)
-thinking of an ex-partner caused activity in both the emotional areas (cingulate cortex) and the sensory areas responsive to physical pain

-so they activate the cingulate cortex, like real pain does, and respond to acetaminophen

Question 75

6.2 Pain: ways of relieving pain: opoids and endorphins

How does the brain put brakes on prolonged pain? Explain the definition of that process too. Why was this significant? (2)

-cause once you know something is painful, you do not need constant reminders at the same intensity

Answer 75

-through opioid mechanisms which are systems that respond to opiate drugs and similar chemicals
-this is significant because it shows that opiates mainly act on the nervous system rather than the injured tissue

Question 76

3.2 Pain: ways of relieving pain: opioids and endorphins

What structures do opiates bind to receptors in mostly?

Answer 76

-spinal cord and periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain

Question 77

6.2 Pain: relieving pain: opioids and endorphins

What are the nervous systems own version of opiates that attach to the same receptors as morphine and how many types does the brain produce? (2)

-since opiates are man made

Answer 77

-endorphins (endogenous morphines)
-it produces several types of endorphins, which relieve different types of pain

Question 78

6.2 Pain: relieveing pain: opioids and endorphins

Explain the gate theory. Explain theory and how. (2)

Answer 78

-Theory: non-painful input can close the gates to painful input
-How: spinal cord neurons that recieve messages from pain receptors also recieve input from touch receptors

Question 79

6.2 Pain: relieving pain: opioids

What type of axons does morphine work on? Which explains why it is ineffective against a sharp knife but good for post-surgical pain.

Answer 79

-large-diameter axons that are involved in sharp pain

-however long-term use of morphine causes an increase in sensitivity to pain

Question 80

6.2 Pain: relieving pain: cannabinoids

Discuss the use of cannabinoids for pain. What pain does it work on? What are negative side effects? (2)

Answer 80

-acts mainly on periphery pain, rather than CNS pain
-side effects include memory impairment

Question 81

6.2 Pain: Relieving pain: cannabinoids and capsaicin

Describe using capsaicin. Explain what pain it is used for and negative side effects. (2)

Answer 81

-rubbed onto exterior skin (like icy hot)
-it can cause an excessive buildup of calcium in heat receptors, which damages mitochondria

Question 82

6.2 Pain: relieving pain: placebos

Discuss how placebos have been shown to reduce pain. What are the proposed mechanisms this happens? (2)

Answer 82

-placebos reduce both physical and emotional pain. moreso emotional though
-proposed that it is partly through relaxation, distraction and top-down control of sensations and emotions

Question 83

6.2 Sensitization of pain

Why is damaged or inflammed tissue, such as sunburned skin, so painful to touch?

Answer 83

-it releases histamines, nerve growth factor and other chemicals to help repair the damage but also magnify the responses of nearby heat and pain receptors

Question 84

6.2 Sensitization of pain

How do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen, relieve pain?

Answer 84

-reducing the chemicals from damaged tissues

Question 85

6.2 Sensitization of pain

Why do some people experience chronic pain? Explain how this comes about

Answer 85

-barrage of stimulation to a neuron can potentiate its synaptic receptors to respond more vigorously to the same input in the future

-this is a mechanism essential for learning and memory
-to prevent chronic pain, you want to limit the pain initially experienced

Question 86

6.2 Itch

Explain what itch is. Is it a seperate sensation? How does it occur? Why do we get the need to scratch an itch (3)

Answer 86

-itch is a seperate sensation and has special receptors and two spinal cord paths to convey it
-either through histamines during skin damage or by touching plants
-scratching helps remove whatever is irritating your skin, plus pain inhibits itch

Question 87

6.2 Itch

What is some evidence for why itch is a different sensation than pain?

Answer 87

-opiates which decrease pain, increase itch

-histamines or capsaicin decrease itch

Question 88

6.3: The Chemical Senses: Taste

What is tatse a result from in the body?

Answer 88

-taste buds

-the receptors on the tongue

Question 89

6.3 Taste

What is the area that taste and smell axons converge onto many of the same cells?

Answer 89

-endopiriform cortex

-make flavour, a combination of taste and smell

Question 90

6.3 Taste: Taste receptors

Are the receptors for taste true neurons?

Answer 90

-no, they are modified skin cells

Question 91

6.3: Taste: Taste Receptors

What similarities do taste receptors have to neurons? How about to skin cells? (2)

Answer 91

-Similarity to neurons: excitable membranes, release NT to excite neighboring cells, transmit info to brain
-Similarity to skin cells: gradually sloughed off and replaced (10-14 days)

-human tastes buds in adults lie mainly along the edge of tongue

Question 92

6.3 Taste: How many kinds of taste receptors?

What are the five types of taste receptors outlined in the text? What is the proposed sixth? (2)

Answer 92

-sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami
-fats

-umami is the taste of glutamate
-Jalapenos and other hot peppers produce a hot mouth sensation that is not considered a rasre (Capsaicin)

Question 93

6.3 Taste: How many kinds of taste receptors?

Define adaptation and give an example. (2)

Answer 93

-sensitivity to a taste diminishes over time when continuously exposed to that taste stimulus.
-Example: Tasting something sour and then trying something else sour, you will find the second sour thing tastes less sour

Question 94

6.3 Taste: How many tatse receptors?

Define cross-adaptation and give an example

Answer 94

-its means you do not show a reduced response to one taste after exposure to another
-Example: you have something sour then try something sweet. The sweet thing will taste just as sweet as normal.

Question 95

6.3 Taste: How many receptors do we have?

What did the experiment on the rats brain cells and taste show us?

Answer 95

-shows us that the temporal pattern, or the specific timing and sequence of action potentials, is important for our perception

-they generate different patterns of action potentials over time
-some of these patterns code taste experiences, like bitterness.
-taste is coded by relative activity of different kinds of cells but also by the rythym of responses within a given cell

Question 96

6.3 Taste: Mechanisms of Taste Receptors

How does a saltiness receptor work? What happens when you eat something salty?

Answer 96

-it simply permits sodium ions on the tongue to cross its membrane

-chemicals that prevent sodium from crossing the membrane weaken salty tastes

Question 97

6.3 Taste: Mechanisms of taste receptors

How does a sour receptor on the tongue work? What does it detect?

Answer 97

-it detects the presence of acids

Question 98

6.3 Taste: Mechanisms of taste receptors

How do sweetness, bitterness and umami receptors mechanisms work?

Answer 98

-after a molecule binds to one of these receptors, it activates a G protein that releases a second messenger in cell

-metabotropic synapses

-people have two types of both sweetness and umami receptors each with varying sensitivities

Question 99

6.3 Taste: Mechanisms of taste receptors

Disucss bitterness receptors. What do all bitterness receptors have in common? How many are there? What are the pros and cons of the amount of receptors we have for bitterness? (4)

Answer 99

-bitter tastes is detecting toxic chemicals
-about 30 or more
-Pro: we detect a great number of dangerous chemicals
-Cons: because each type of bitter receptor is present in small numbers, we don’t detect very low concentrations of bitter substances

-many bitter chemicals also trigger receptors in the nose, provoking coughing or sneezing

Question 100

6.3 Taste: Stop and Check Pg 213

Suppose you find a new, unusual-tasting food. How could you determine whether we have a special receptor for that food or whether we taste it with a combination of the other known taste receptors?

-think about a definition in this section

Answer 100

-You could test for cross-adaptation. If the new taste cross-adapts with others, then it uses the same receptors. If it does not cross-adapt, it may have a receptor of its own.

-Another possibility would be to find some procedure that blocks this taste without blocking other tastes.

Question 101

6.3 Taste: taste coding in the brain

Where do taste nerves project to? Where is this a structure in?

Answer 101

-the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) which is a structure in the medulla

-from the NTS, information branches out reacvhing the pons, lateral hypothalamus, the amygdala, the ventral-posterior thalamus, and two areas of the cerebral cortex
-somatosensory cortex responds to the touch aspect of tongue stimulation

Question 102

6.3 Taste: Taste coding in the brain

What is the insula? Describe the structure (2)

Answer 102

-it is the primary taste cortex (within the cerebral cortex)
-the insula in each hemisphere of the cortex recieves input from both sides of the tongue

-certain areas of the insula are dominated by cells responding mainly to sweet tastes whereas other areas are dominated by cells responding to bitter

Question 103

6.3 Taste: Variations in taste sensitivity

What are supertasters?

Answer 103

-people with more taste buds who are more sensitive to tastes than other people

Question 104

6.3 Olfaction

Define olfaction and what is it the response t? (2)

Answer 104

-sense of smell
-response to chemcials that contact the membranes inside the nose

Question 105

6.3 Olfaction: olfactory receptors

What are the neurons responsible for smell? Where are they located? (2)

Answer 105

-olfactory cells
-they line the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages

Question 106

6.3 Olfactory: Olfactory receptors

What does each olfactory cell have in mammals? Where are olfactory receptors located? (2

Answer 106

-each has cilia (threadlike dendrites) that extend from the cell body into the mucous surface of the nasal passage
-olfactory receptors are located on the cilia

-cells are bigger than receptors

Question 107

6.3 Olfaction: olfactory receptors

In what way do olfactory receptors resemble metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors?

Answer 107

-Like metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors, an olfactory receptor acts through a G protein that triggers further events within the cell.

Question 108

6.3 Olfaction: Messages to the brain

Detail the path that occurs to get the info from an olfactory receptor to the brain

Answer 108

-olfactory receptor is stimulated, its axon carries impulse to olfactory bulb which sends acons to the olfactory area of the cerebral cortex

Question 109

6.3 Olfaction: messages to the brain

Describe the process that happens when an olfactory receptor is damaged? Same location and protein? How does the cell know where to grow? (2)

-an olfactory receptor has an average survival time of just over a month

Answer 109

-stem cell matures into a new olfactory cell in the same location as the first and expresses the same receptor protein
-each olfactory neuron axon contains copies of its olfactory receptor proteins, which it uses like an idenfitication card to find its correct target in the olfactory bulb

Question 110

6.3 Olfaction: Individual DIfferences

What factors contribute to individual differences in olfactory sensitivity?

Answer 110

-People differ in olfactory sensitivity because of genetics, age, and gender.

Question 111

6.3 Pheromones:

Define the vomeronasal organ and where is it located? What does it respond to? (2)

Answer 111

-VNO is a set of receptors located near, but seperate from, the olfactory receptors
-it responds only to pheromones

-each VNO receptors responds to just one pheromone

Question 112

6.3 Pheromones

Define pheromones

Answer 112

-chemicals released by an animal that affect the behavour of other members of the same species

-humans also respond somewhat to pheromones, although our receptors are in the olfactory mucosa, not the VNO

Question 113

6.3 Pheromones: Stop and Check Pg 220

What is a major difference between olfactory receptors and those of the vomeronasal organ? (2)

Answer 113

-Olfactory receptors adapt quickly to a continuous odor, whereas receptors of the vomeronasal organ continue to respond.
-Also, vomeronasal sensations are apparently capable of influencing behavior even without being consciously perceived.

Question 114

6.3 Synesthesia

Define synesthesia

Answer 114

-an experience in which stimulation of one sense evokes a perception of that sense and another one also

-Jason is green for example

Question 115

6.3 Synesthesia

What evidence indicates that people learn their synesthetic associations, at least in some cases?

Answer 115

-Some people have letter-color synesthesia that matches the colors of refrigerator magnets they played with in childhood.

Question 116

6.3 Synesthesia

If someone reports seeing a particular letter in color, in what way is it different from a real color?

Answer 116

-Someone who perceives a letter as yellow (when it is actually in black ink) can nevertheless see it on a yellow page.

Question 117

6.3 Summary Pg 222

Where does the seventh crnail nerve and the ninth and tenth nerve convery infromation from? (2)

Answer 117

-7th: anterior two-thirds of the tongue
-9 and 10: posterior tongue and throat

-they interact in complex ways

Question 118

6.3 Summary

What kind of patterns do the olfactory neurons in the cerebral cortex respond to?

Answer 118

-complex patterns, such as those of a food