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PSYC 302 > Chapter 4 -Quiz 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 -Quiz 2 Flashcards

1
Q

4.1 Genetics and Evolution of Behavior

Is there a role for genetics in controlling facial expressions?

A

-Yes

-tested blind people

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2
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What did Mendel demonstrate?

A

-inheritance occurs through genes

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3
Q

Mendellian Genetics

Define genes

A

-units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another

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4
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What are chromosomes?

A

-strands of genes

-come in pairs

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5
Q

Mendellian genetics

What are genes made of?

A

-DNA

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6
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What does a strand of DNA serve as a template for the synthesis of?

A

-RNA

-single strand

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7
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What does RNA’s template help to synthesize?

A

-protein molecules

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8
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What are the four bases of DNA?

A

-adenosine, guanine, cytosine and uracil

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9
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What does homozygous mean?

A

-you have the same gene on both chromosomes

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10
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What does heterozygous mean?

A

-you have different pairs of genes

-think blue eye vs brown eye

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11
Q

Mendellian Genetics

Is the gene for sensitivity to the taste of PTC dominant or recessive?

A

-dominant

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12
Q

Mendellian Genetics

Why is it misleading to say a characteristic is linked to a single gene?

A

-almost any characteristic depends on more than one gene and environment influences

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13
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What are sex-limited genes?

A

-on autosomal chromosomes and activated by hormones in one sex more than the other

-chest hair in men or breast size in women

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14
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What is a mutation?

A

-heritable change in DNA, where one of the bases changes to another, duplicates or deletes

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15
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What is epigenetics?

A

-changes in gene expression

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16
Q

Mendellian Genetics

Does every cell in your body have the same DNA as every other cell? Is there an exception? (2)

A

-yes
-exception is red blood cells

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17
Q

Mendellian Genetics

Can epigenetics be inherited?

A

-yes, at least for a generation or two

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18
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What do histones do?

A

-bind DNA into a ball

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19
Q

Mendellian Genetics

How do epigenetics cause the histones to loosen their grip on the DNA, facilitating the expression of that gene?

A

-by adding acetyl groups to the histone tails

-the opposite turns the gene off

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20
Q

Mendellian Genetics

What does adding methyl groups to a promoter do to a gene?

A

-adding them turns off a gene and removing them turns it on

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21
Q

Mendellian Genetics

How does an epigenetic change differ from a mutation?

A

-A mutation is a permanent change in part of a chromosome whereas an epigenetic change is an increase or decrease in the activity of a gene or group of genes.

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22
Q

Heredity and environment

If a characteristic has high heritability what does this mean?

A

-if the variation in that characteristic depends largely on genetic differences

-ranges from 0 for none to 1

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23
Q

Heredity and environmentq

What are the three kinds of evidence researchers rely on to determine heritability of a characteristic? (3)

A
  1. Comparison of monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins
  2. Another is resemblance between adopted children and their biological parents.
  3. A particular gene is more common than average among people who show a particular behavior.
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24
Q

Heredity and environment

What is the candidate gene approach and how successful has it been? (2)

A

-researchers test whether a gene can have significant influence on one characteristic (like alcohol abuse)
-many studies have yielded small or uncertain effects

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25
Q

Heredity and environment

What is genome wide association research?

A

-examining all the genes and comparing them between two groups

-issues with this approach too

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26
Q

Heredity and environment

Suppose someone determines the heritability of IQ scores for a given population. Then society changes in a way that provides the best possible opportunity for everyone within that population. Will heritability of IQ increase, decrease, or stay the same?

A

-Heritability will increase. Heritability estimates how much of the variation is due to differences in genes. If everyone has the same environment, then differences in environment cannot account for much of the remaining differences in IQ scores. Therefore, the relative role of genetic differences will be greater.

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27
Q

Heredity and environment

What does the example with phenylketonuria (PKU) show?

A

-this condition is hereditary but can be influenced by what the child eats, which means it is not unmodifiable

-keeping the child on a low-phenylaline diet helps

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28
Q

Evolution of behavior

What was Charles Darwin the founder of and what term did he not like? (2)

A

-founder of evolutionary theory
-did not like term evolution and preferred descent with modification

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29
Q

The Evolution of behavior

Define evolution

A

-change over generations in frequency of genes in a population

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30
Q

The evolution of behavior

What are the two questions we must ditinguish about evolution?

A

-how did some species evolve and how do species evolve

-ancestors vs. genetics passing down

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31
Q

The Evolution of behavior

What does evolutionary psychology focus on?

-what explanations do they focus on

A

-evolutionary and functional explanations

-how our genes reflect ancestors + natural selection

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32
Q

The evolution of behavior

What is kin selection?

A

-selection for gene that benefits relatives

-you risk your life for your children, who spread your genes

33
Q

The evolution of behavior

What does altruism show us through a lens of evolutionary psychology? (3)

-what three reasons does it explain for altruism

A

Three reasons for its existence:
-kin selection
-reciprocal altruism
-group selection

34
Q

The evolution of behavior

What is reciprocal altruism?

A

-individuals help those who will return the favour

-requires an ability to identify individuals and remember them

35
Q

The evolution of human behavior

What is group selection?

A

-altruistic groups thrive better than less cooperative groups

-works especially well for humans because we can punish uncooperative pp

36
Q

Maturation of the Vertebrate brain

What are homebox genes? What animals/bugs are they found in? (2)

A

-regulate the expression of other genes and control start of anatomical development
-vertebrates, insects, plants, even fungi and yeast

-all share a large sequence of DNA bases and mutations cause bad effecrs

37
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain

When does a human central nervous system begin to form during the developmental stages?

-like what week as a fetus

A

-2 weeks old

38
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain

What parts of the central nervous system begin to develop in a fetus? Describe this (5)

A

-Dorsal surface thickens
-Lips rise, curl, merge forming neural tube
-Tube sinks, enlarges into hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
-Rest becomes spinal cord
-Cavity becomes central canal & brain ventricles

39
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain

In early infancy, what area of the cortex is more mature?

A

-primary somatosensory areas of the cortex

-registering vision, hearing and other senses

-greatest change over first couple of years is the prefrontal cortex and other cortical areas responsible for attenion, working memory and decision making
-the infant brain is set up to see, hear and so forth but limited in its abiity to interpret that information or decide what to do with it

40
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain: growth and development of neurons

What is proliferation?

A

-production of new cells

-cells are not yet identifiable as neurons or glia

41
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain: growth and development of neurons

Early in development, what happens to the cells lining the ventricles of the brain? (2)

A

-some stay there and are stem cells contuing to divide
-some migrate to other parts of the nervous system

in humans, most of the migration occurs before birth, but some after

42
Q

Maturation of vertebrate brain

What is one of the major differences between human brains and chimpanzee brains in regards to neurons?

A

-human neurons continue to proliferate longer

43
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain: growth and development of neurons

What chemicals help cells migrate within the body in early development?

A

-immunoglobins and chemokines

-a deficit in these leads to impaired migration, decreased brain size

and “retardation”

44
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain: Growth and development of neurons

What is differentiation?

A

-when a cell differentiates into a neuron

-it will begin to form its dendrites, axon and synapses

45
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain: Growth and development of neurons

What is synaptogenesis?

A

-the formation of synapses

-this begins long before birth but continues throughout life as neurons form new synapses and discard old ones
-this process slows in older people as does the formation of dendritic branches

46
Q

Maturation of the vertebrate brain: growth and development of neurons

What is myelination?

A

-process by which glia produce the insulating fatty sheaths

-later and slower stage

-myelins form first in the spinal cord and then in the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain
-continues gradually for decades and increases as a result of learning new motor skills

47
Q

Maturation of vertebrate brain: new neurons later in life

What exceptions were found that showed some neurons were generated after infancy? (2)

A

-Exceptions found: Olfactory receptors, songbirds, hippocampus, basal ganglia

-Traditional belief: No new neurons after infancy

48
Q

Maturation of vertebrate brain: new neurons later in life

What was the method used to determine if new neurons were made after infancy? (2)

A

-use of radioactive isotope through examination of carbon in DNA of cells

-could compare the concentraion of carbon because of nuclear war

49
Q

Maturation of vertebrate brain: new neurons later in life

What structures in the brain do and do not get new neurons? (3)

A

-Cerebral cortex: Few to no new neurons after birth
-Hippocampus: Almost 2% neurons replaced yearly
-Basal ganglia: Neurons replaced in parts like striatum

-when neurons are formed they are small interneurons not projecting neurons
-The mean C14 concentration of the DNA of human neurons in the hippocampus and basal ganglia corresponds to a level slightly more recent than the year the person was born, indicating that some of those neurons formed after birth.

50
Q

Pathfinding by axons: Chemical pathfinding by axons

How did Paul Weiss’s experiment with salamanders challenge conventional wisdom about nerve connections? Discuss the experiment and how it worked, what the outcomes were and what Weiss deduced from it (4)

A

-Experiment: Grafted extra leg to salamander
-Axons grew into extra limb, allowing movement
-Weiss proposed nerves attached randomly, muscles responded selectively
-Weiss dismissed idea of specific axon-muscle connections, likened muscles to radios tuned to different signals.

-Contrary to mammals, salamanders accept transplants

51
Q

Pathfinding by axons: specificy of axon connections

How did Roger Sperry’s experiment demonstrate specificity of axon connections? Describe the experiment, how he changed it and what he found and concluded. (5)

A

-Experiment: Cut optic nerves in newts
-Optic nerves grew back to tectum, restoring vision
-then rotated eye by 180 degrees, cut optic nerve again and axons regrew to original targets, despite eye rotation
-Newts saw world upside down, confirming specificity of axon growth
-Sperry’s experiment showed axons regrow to original targets, suggesting they follow specific chemical trails.

52
Q

Pathfinding by axons: Chemical gradients

How does an axon find its target despite the vast number of neurons and limited genes? Give a general answer and then break it down. (2)

A

-growing axon follows a path of cell surface molecules and is attracted and repelled by different molecules
-then axons with a greater concentration of a chemical will attach to target cells with a greater chemical concentration of the same chemical

53
Q

Pathfinding by axons: Chemical gradients

How do axons align themselves with their target cells? Give a bit of an example (2)

-like how does the chemical gradient work

A

-they align themselves with target cells based on concentration of chemicals
-higher concentraion of protein in axon connects to higher concentration in target cell and vice versa

54
Q

Pathfinding by axons: competition among axons as a general principle

When axons intially reach their targets, chemical gradients steer them to approx the correct location, but it isn’t 100% accurate. What happens to help with this accuracy? (2)

A

-each axon forms synapses onto many cells in approx the right location and each target cell recieves synapses from many axons
-over time, the postsynaptic cell strengthens the most appropriate synapses and eliminates others

-suggest a general principle called neural darwinism

55
Q

Pathfinding by axons: competition among axons as a general principle

Explain neural darwinism. What happens in the beginning, middle and end? (3)

A

-Start with more neurons/synapses than needed
-Selection process retains some synapses, rejects others
-Successful combinations survive, others fail

-Caution with analogy to Darwinian evolution: Mutations are random, while neurotrophins guide axonal branches and synapses

56
Q

Pathfinding by axons: Stop and Check Q Pg 122

If axons from the retina were prevented from showing spontaneous activity during early development, what would be the probable effect on development of the thalamus?

A

-The axons would attach based on a chemical gradient but could not fine-tune their adjustment based on experience. Therefore, the connections would be less precise.

57
Q

Determinants of Neuronal Survival

What did the research by Rita Levi-Montalcini reveal about axon development? (4)

A

-Muscle role: Promote survival, not formation, of axons
-Discovery: Muscles deliver nerve growth factor (NGF) to axons
-NGF supports survival and growth of axons
-Axons without NGF degenerate, leading to apoptosis of their cell bodies

-Muscles deliver NGF to axons, supporting their survival and growth. Axons without NGF undergo apoptosis if they fail to connect with postsynaptic cells.
-That is, each neuron starts life with a “suicide program”: If its axon does not make contact with an appropriate postsynaptic cell by a certain age, the neuron kills itself through a process called apoptosis1, a programmed mechanism of cell death.

58
Q

Determinants of neuronal survival

Define neurotrophin

A

-chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons

-In addition to NGF, the nervous system responds to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and several other neurotrophins
-Neurotrophins are essential for growth of axons and dendrites, formation of new synapses, and learning

59
Q

Determinant of neuronal survival: stop and check Q Pg 123

What process assures that the spinal cord has the right number of axons to innervate all the muscle cells?

A

-The nervous system builds more neurons than it needs and discards through apoptosis those that do not make lasting synapses

60
Q

Determinant of neuronal survival: stop and check Q Pg 123

At what age does a person have the greatest number of neurons—early in life, during adolescence, or during adulthood?

A

-greatest early in life.

61
Q

The Vulnerable Developing Brain

What are the symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome? (2)

A

-ADHD like symptoms
-mental disabilities, motor problems, hearts defects and facial abnormalities

-drinking during pregnancy leads to thinning of the cerebral cortex

62
Q

The Vulnerable Developing brain Stop and Check Pg 123

Anesthetic drugs and anxiety-reducing drugs increase activity of GABA, decreasing brain excitation. Why would we predict that exposure to these drugs might be dangerous to the brain of a fetus?

A

-Prolonged exposure to anesthetics or anxiety-reducing drugs might increase apoptosis of developing neurons.

  • Increased GABA activity decreases excitation, and developing neurons undergo apoptosis if they do not receive enough excitation.
63
Q

Differentiation of the Cortex

What surprising result occurred when researchers rewired the auditory thalamus and cortex in ferrets?

A

-The rewired temporal cortex, receiving input from the optic nerve, produced visual responses.

-this helps answer when and how a neuron decides what neuron it will differentiate into.
-the sensory input instructs the cortex about how to develop

64
Q

Fine-tuning by experience: Experience and dendritic branching

What is far transfer?

A

-the idea that you can teach something challenging and hope it helps someone get better at other, unrelated tasks too

-in general, this is not shown in humans, only near transfer

65
Q

Module 4.2: End of module Quiz

Which parts of the cerebral cortex are most likely to detoriate in Alzheimers disease and other conditions?

A

-the areas that mature at the latest age, such as the prefrontal cortex

66
Q

Module 4.2: End of Module quiz

If a pregnant woman drinks alcohol, alcohol harms the brain of the fetus not only while it is in the system, but also while it is washing away after drinking. What is the danger while alcohol is washing away?

A

-overstimulation at glutamate synapses can poision the mitochondria

67
Q

Unit 4.3: Brain damage and short-term recovery

What is the most common head injury in young people?

A

-closed head injury

-sharp blow to the head that doesn’t puncture brain

68
Q

Brain-damage and short term recovery: reducing the harm from a stroke

What is a stoke

-AKA as a cerebrovascular accident

A

-interruption of normal blood flow to a brain area

-more common in older people

-can be ischemia (blood clot) or hemorrhage (ruptured artery)

69
Q

Brain-damage and short-term recovery: reducing the harm from a stoke

What problems do both ischemic and hemorrhage strokes lead to? (2)

A

-accumulation of fluid which creates pressure (edema)
-impair sodium-potassium pump

-combination of edema and excess sodium provokes excess release of the transmitter glutamate which overstimulates neurons, damaging both neurons and synapses

70
Q

Brain-damage and short term recovery: immediate treatments

What drug helps with ischemic strokes but makes hemorraging ones worse?

A

-tissue plasminogen activator or tPA

-breaks up blood clots

71
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: increased brain stimulation

What is diaschisis?

A

-decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other neurons

-if diachisis contributes to behavioural deficits following brain damage, then increased stimulation should help

72
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: increased brain stimulation stop and check

After someone has had a stroke, would it be best (if possible) to direct stimulant drugs to the cells that were damaged or somewhere else?

A

-It is best to direct a stimulant drug to the cells that had been receiving input from the damaged cells.

-Presumably, the loss of input has produced diaschisis.

73
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: axon sprouting

After a cell loses input from an axon, what does it secrete and what does it form from those secretions? (2)

A

-secretes neurotrophins
-induce other axons to form new branches or collateral sprouts

-collateral sprouting in the cortex contributes to behavioral recovery in some cases
-however, the result depends on whether the sprouting axons convery information similar to those they replace

74
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: denervation supersensitivity

What is denervation supersensitivity?

-AKA receptor supersensitivity

A

-increased sensitivity of neurons following the damage or cells nearby

-helps compensate for decreased input
-however, it can strengthen both desirable connections and undesirable connections (like those responsible for pain)

75
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: stop and check Pg 139

Is collatera sprouting a change in axons or dendritic receptors?

A

-Axons

76
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: Stop and Check Pg 139

Is denervation supersensitivity a change in axons or dendritic receptors?

A

-dendritic receptors

77
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: reorganized sensory rep and phantom limb

What causes phantom limb sensations, according to modern understanding?

A

-occur when the somatosensory cortex reorganizes and becomes responsive to alternative inputs, such as inputs from neighboring body parts.

-touch on the face now produces a facial sensation and a sensation in the phantom hand
-amputees who learn to use an artifical arm report that the phantom sensations gradually disappear

78
Q

Later mechanisms of recovery: learned adjusments of behavior

What is a deafferented limb?

A

-when the motor nerves still connect to the muscle but the animal can’t feel it

-however, if both limbs are deafferented the monkey will still use it

PSYC 302 (15 decks)

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