Human Diseases > Chapter 6 > Flashcards
Chapter 6 Flashcards
Anaerobic
Living without oxygen
Bone mass density (BMD)
A measure of bone density or weight. A thinning bone results in a lower bone density.
Calcaneal
The heel area of the foot
Computerized axle tomography (CAT or CT)
Imaging by a cross-sectional plane of the body; also called computed tomography.
Densitometry
Measurement of bone thickness.
Disk ectomy
Surgery to remove a vertebral disk.
Dowager’s hump
Abnormal curvature in the upper thoracic spine.
Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
The most widely use technology to measure bone density. Two x-ray beams are aimed at the patient’s bones and the density of the bone is determined by the adsorption of each x-ray beam.
Electromyography
Today diagnostic test in which a small needle is inserted into the muscle tissue and the electrical activity is recorded.
Fascia
A thick fibrous connective tissue.
Interphalangeal
Usually referring to joints between the finger bones.
Metacarpophalangeal
Referring to the metacarpus and the phalanges; specifically, the articulations between them.
Mineralization
A process that causes the characteristic hardness of bones.
Myelogram
An x-ray picture taken after injecting dye into the spinal canal to reveal compression on the spinal cord or spinal nerves.
ORIF
Open reductions commonly require some type of internal fixateation or holding device such as pans, plates, screws, or rods in a procedure called an open reduction, internal fixation(ORIF).
Osteomyelitis
Inflammation or infection of the marrow of the bone.
Radiologic
Relating to medical imaging using x-rays, ionizing radiation, nuclear magnetic resonance or ultrasound.
RICE
Acronym for rest, ice, compression, and elevation, the activities to manage soft tissue trauma like those often associated with sports injuries.
Sciatica
Pain along the sciatic nerve, often radiating down the leg and caused by pressure on the spinal nerve.
Spasms
Uncontrolled muscle contractions.
Tetany
Hyperirritability of muscles causing a spasm like condition; usually the result of a lack of calcium.
To phi
Small, whitish nodules of uric acid.
Articular fracture
One that involves a joint surface.
Avulsion fracture
One where there is a separation of a small bone fragment from the bone where a tendon or ligament is attached.
Closed Fracture
A fracture that does not break through the skin.
Colles’ fracture
A fracture of the lower end of the radius with displacement of the fragment.
Comminuted fracture
One in which there are more than two ends or fragments.
Complete fracture
The fracture is completely through the bone.
Compression fracture
One in which the bone appears to be mashed down.
Displaced fracture
One in which fragments are out of position.
Extracapsular fracture
A fracture outside or not involving the joint capsule.
Femoral neck fracture
A fracture involving the neck of the femur.
Greenstick fracture
A common incomplete fracture that occurs in children; it appears to have broken partially like sap filled green stick.
Impacted fracture
One that has a bone end forced over the other end.
Incomplete fracture
The bone is fractured but not in two.
Intertrochanteric fracture
One that is in the trochanteric area of the femur.
Intracapsular fracture
A fracture inside the joint capsule.
Longitudinal fracture
One that runs the length of the bone.
Nondisplaced fracture
One in which the fragments are still in correct position.
Oblique fracture
A fracture that runs in a transverse pattern.
Open fracture
Hey fracture involving the bone puncturing through the skin, or an object puncturing the skin, making an opening through the skin to the fracture site.
Pathologic fracture
A fracture caused by weakness from another disease.
Pott’s fracture
Fracture of the lower part of the fibula and tibia, with outward displacement of the foot.
Simple fracture
A fracture that does not break through the skin.
Spiral fracture
A fracture that twists around the bone.
Stellate fracture
A fracture that forms a star-like pattern.
Stress fracture
Related to too much weight or pressure.
Subcapital fracture
A fracture below the head of the femur.
Transverse fracture
One that runs across or at a 90° angle.
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Spinal Deformities.
Description: the fomites might be very obvious at onset, as of congenital defects, but more commonly, they progress slowly and I’m unnoticed until symptoms arise.
Etiology: deformities can be caused by a variety of factors, including congenital defects, poor posture, bone disease, and growth disorders.
Symptoms: symptoms commonly include back pain and fatigue. Diagnosis is generally confirmed by x-ray and clinical examination.
Diagnosis: spinal deformities are diagnosed by thorough physical examination in a series of x-rays of the spine. A pulmonary function test might be needed in breathing is affected. MRI scans can assist in identifying tumor or infection infection.
Treatment: treatment includes eliminating or treating causative factors, bracing, and spinal surgery. Untreated spinal deformities can progress to life-threatening conditions when cardiac and respiratory functions are compromised.
Prevention: there is no known prevention for spinal deformities.
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Scoliosis
Description: scoliosis is a lateral Curvature of the spine. It affects both sexes but girls usually have more severe curvature and it counts for Approximately 90% of the cases. Scoliosis can occur at any age but is usually noticed during the early teen years, but growth rate is accelerated.
Etiology: the cause of scoliosis, in most cases, is unknown.
Symptoms: symptoms include (1) Back pain due to muscles trying to conform to the spinal curving, (2)A rib or shoulder blade hump, and (3) uneven shoulders and hips. Scoliosis often noticed when dresses hang lower on one side or the other, and the brassiere straps need to be adjusted to different lengths.
Diagnosis: scoliosis screening in school age children was initiated in the 1960s and is now mandated by law in some states. Screening involves observation of the spine as the individual bends forward. Scoliosis is a suspected if the spine curves to the side in the scapula shifts upward.
Treatment: treatment is aimed at preventing a worsening of the condition and often include bracing. Compliance with brace-wearing for female adolescence is often poor, leading to the need for further treatment. Most cases of scoliosis can be corrected it detected early and treated properly and promptly.
Prevention: scoliosis cannot be prevented.
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Osteoporosis
Description: osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease that causes a porosity or Swiss cheese appearance of the bone, leading to a decrease in bone mass. It is the most prevalent bone disease worldwide. It is estimated to cause major orthopedic problems in approximately one third of the women in the United States.
Etiology: many causative factors play a part in osteoporosis. Age-related osteoporosis affects both men and women equally and is due to normal age-related bone loss. Osteoporosis occurs secondary to disease that effect mobility. For example, quadriplegia can lead to a loss of 30 to 40% of bone mass after six months of immobility. The most common type of osteoporosis is seen in women who are post menopausal and estrogen deficient.
It is believed that this osteoporosis is due to a combination of factors, including a decrease in estrogen, calcium, and exercise. I should process is a slow, progressive disease that robs skeletal buttons of its mass and strength. It might be decades before the bone because we cannot fracture. Most fractures and women are over age 50 a related to osteoporosis
Symptoms: early signs of osteoporosis include compression fractures of the spine and pathologic wrist fractures. Compression fractures of and pain and thoracic and lumbar spine. Over a period of time, the individual might lose 4 to 5 inches of height, decreasing the thoracic and a half Domino cavity size. Other symptoms are kyphosis in the appearance of the Dowager’s hump.
Diagnosis: diagnosing kitty confirmed by clinical examination, x-rays, CT scans, And bone densitometry.
Treatment: currently, there is no treatment to reverse osteoporosis, although the progression of osteoporosis can be slowed and bone mass level maintained by combination of therapies. Administration of the medications Fosamax, Actonel, Boniva, and Reclast to be helpful to defending fractures. Reduction of risk factors include decreasing alcohol and caffeine consumption and not smoking. Other therapies include increasing estrogen, increasing calcium and vitamin D intake, and a daily exercise routine that includes weight bearing exercise.
Prevention: preventative measurement for osteoporosis needs to begin early because bone mass is built prior to the age of 30. Young women should be encouraged to exercise daily, eat a balanced diet, quit smoking, and limit caffeine and alcohol consumption. Entering menopausal years with good bone mass and maintaining as much of the bone mass as possible is the best weapon against osteoporosis.
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Osteomyelitis
Description: osteomyelitis is an inflammation of the bone commonly caused by infection. Etiology: Staphylococcus aureus is the responsible organism in approximately 90% of the cases. This bacterium can enter the bone through a wound, spread from infection nearby, or come from a skin or throat infection. osteomyelitis usually affects the long bones of the arms and legs. The most often occurs in children and adolescents as a result of a throat infection. In severe cases, they can affect the growth plate of the bones, leading to shortening of the limb.
Symptoms: symptoms of osteomyelitis can include sudden onset of high fever, chills, tenderness over the affected bone, leukocytosis and bacteremia. In adults, osteomyelitis often occurs following a traumatic accident involving the bone or following bone surgery, especially when implants such as screws, plates, or other hardware are needed.
Diagnosis: physical examination revealing pain and a bone along with an elevated white blood cell count can suggest osteomyelitis. And indicative test is an elevated a erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and an x-ray exam, an MRI scan, or CT scan can also reveal abnormality. Diagnosis can Become firmed by taking samples of bone, pus, blood, or joint fluid to identify infected organisms.
Treatment: treatment for osteomyelitis is aggressive intravenous antibiotic therapy. Affected bone is often derided surgically to speed the healing process. Surgical hardware is often removed for the same reason. Acute osteomyelitis, if not treated effectively, can become chronic and lead to a lifetime of problems for the affected individual. Chronic osteomyelitis m can lead to a large, gapping scar tissue and chronic wound drainage.
Prevention: cleansing and properly treating wounds, especially deep ones, aid in preventing osteomyelitis. Blood-borne bacteria must also be promptly diagnosed and treated. Individuals with artificial joints or metal components should take preventative antibiotics prior to any surgery or dental procedure.
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Osteomalacia
Description: osteomalacia is the general term for softening of the bone due to defective mineralization and the general term for softening of the bones in adults; in children, it is called rickets.
Etiology: osteomalacia is caused by a deficiency of vitamin D, which aids in the bones mineralization that causes their characteristic hardness. Without this process, the bone becomes soft and weak. To mineralized, bones need calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D. Vitamin D deficiency and adults to can be due to inadequate nutritional intake, inadequate exposure to sunlight or a malabsorption problem.
Symptoms: symptoms and signs of osteomalacia include bone pain, loss of height, bending, and deformity in weight-bearing bones such as the spine, pelvis, and legs.
Diagnosis: a thorough history of diet and amount of time in the sun is helpful in diagnosis, followed by blood testing to measure vitamin D levels and x-rays to look for cracks in the bone. A bone biopsy is quite definitive but often not needed for the diagnosis.
Treatment: correction of the deficiency potentially cures problem. Administration of 200,000 IU weekly of vitamin D for 4 to 6 weeks, followed by an oral dose of 1600 IU daily, is usually an adequate treatment. However, phones that have bowed, short, or flattened might not regain normal appearance and function.
Prevention: vitamin D deficiency can usually be avoided by: Exposing arms and legs to sunlight for 5 to 10 minutes a day. Eating food high in vitamin D such as oily fish (salmon, sardines, mackerel)and egg yolks. Taking vitamin supplements if needed.
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Osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disease
Description: osteoarthritis, the complex, degenerative process, for wearing out of joint, is the leading cause of disability in United States. You can begin in the early 20s with 90% of all adults showing some radiologic changes.
Etiology: the exact cause of osteoarthritis is unknown. The amount or degree of wear is associated with several factors. Sports injuries speed the wear and tear of the joints, leading to at a younger age.
Symptoms: older adults are usually symptomatic with this type of arthritis. It often affects frequently used joints, such as those in the hands, and joints that are weight-bearing such as those of the spine, hips, and knee. Affected joints of the hands often swell and become painful. The distal and proximal interphalangeal joints are often affected and can acquire a crooked deformity of the fingers. The metacarpophalangeal joints are usually not effected.
Treatment: treatment for osteoarthritis includes rest, nonweight-bearing exercises such as swimming and biking, application of heat, and the use of analgesics and anti-inflammatory medications. Severe osteoarthritis can be treated by steroid injections into the joint capsule to relieve pain. Total surgical joint replacement might be recommended.
Diagnosis: the diagnosis is usually made based on history and physical exam because x-rays do not always correlate with symptoms.
Prevention: maintaining a healthy bodyweight is the single best prevention. Excess weight strains joints, especially those of the knee and hips. It is estimated that every 1 pound of body weight places approximately 3 pounds of stress on the joints of the knees and even more on the hips.
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Rheumatoid arthritis
Description: rheumatoid arthritis is known as an autoimmune disorder that not only affects the joints but also the connected tissue for the entire body. Rheumatoid arthritis often affects the lungs, heart, and blood vessels, causing the individual to appear chronically ill. This type of arthritis often affects people in the prime of their life and affects women more than men. It is debilitating, chronic disease that destroys the joints.
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Gout
Description: Gout is often called gouty arthritis because the condition leads to inflammation of the affected joints.
Etiology: Doubt is caused by a metabolic alteration in the breakdown of certain protein foods. Individuals with gout deposit your uric acid crystals in joints of the body.
Symptoms: the primary joint affected is the metatarsophalangeal Joint of the big toe. These uric acid crystals have razor sharp edges that Irritate the joint, causing an acute inflammatory response. . Symptoms are redness, heat, swelling and pain in the joint. Chronic gout can be characterized by uric acid deposit did in subcutaneous tissue as well as the joint. The deposits appear as small, whitish nodules called tophi and are commonly seenaround a joint in the soft tissue of the a ear. Kidney dysfunction and an increase in the occurrence of kidney stones are also common with chronic gout.
Diagnosis: diagnosis is based on finding uric acid crystals in joint, body fluids, tissues, or all of these.
Treatment: treatment can include anti-gout medication and dietary adjustment to decrease the amount of protein consumed. Weight loss in obese patients also can be beneficial.
Prevention: avoiding food high in purine such as meat, poultry, fish, and other seafood is helpful in preventing gouty attacks. Preventing dehydration by drinking plenty of fluids while avoiding diuretic drinks such as tea and alcohol is also helpful.
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Hallux Valgus
Description: hallux valgus is a deformity affecting the metatarsophalangeal joint of the big toe. It is more commonly called a bunion. This condition occurs more frequently and women and tends to run in families.
Etiology: the cause of bunions is controversial. Many experts think the cause is an inherited faulty foot formation that progresses over the time it is irritated by poor or improper footwear. Others think the footwear actually causes the condition. Wearing pointed toe shoes, especially with high heels, aggravates the condition. This type of shoe forces the great toe into the valgus position and increases the pressure on the metatarsophalangeal joint. Over a period of time, this chronic irritation leads to a buildup of soft tissue and bone in the joint area.
Symptoms: symptoms and signs include redness, pain, and swelling in the area and, often, the inability to wear pointed-toe or high-heeled shoes.
Treatment: mild cases can be resolved by changing to a probably fitting, low-heeled shoe. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory medications can be beneficial in relieving pain. More severe cases might need surgical intervention with bunionectomy.
Prevention: wearing proper footwear to prevent or at least slow the progression of bunion.
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Temporomandibular joint syndrome(TMJ)
Description. TMJ is an inflammation of the temporomandibular joint, the joint that connects the lower jaw of the skull. This disorder can result in significant pain and impairment.
Etiology: TMJ might be due to joint tissue lesions, overbite, malocclusion, or temporarily improperly fitted dentures or dental work.
Symptoms: severe headaches and pain in the jaw joint might be indicative of TMJ. This pain can be made worse by chewing. Classic signs include marked decrease in the ability to open the mouth and a clicking sound made during chewing motion.
Diagnosis: examination of the mouth along with dental x-rays, CT scans, or MRI scan aids in diagnosis of TMJ.
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Muscular dystrophy
Description: muscular dystrophy is an inherited genetic disorder that affects skeletal muscle. There are many types of dystrophies, but the most common type is Ducenne’s MD, which primarily affects no children.
Symptoms: Duchenne’s MD is characterized by a wasting away Of shoulder and pelvic girdle muscles. Survival beyond age 20 is rare.
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Ganglion cyst
Description: a
ganglion cyst is a fluid filled benign tumor that usually develops on a tendon sheath near the wrist area.
Etiology: the cause of the cyst is unknown, although some feel that they might be associated with a repetitive injury.
Symptoms: a cyst is commonly a single, smooth, round lump just under the skin. It can be quite small or grow to the size of a dime or quarter. Usually, there are painless but unsightly. Cysts can disappear gradually over a period of months.
Diagnosis: a physical exam is often all that is needed to diagnose this condition.
Treatment: if they are painful or unsightly, this is the physician might choose to rupture the cyst or drain it. Ganglionectomy, or surgical removal, also can be performed.
Prevention: there are no prevention measures for ganglion cyst.
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Tetanus
Description: tetanus, also called the lockjaw, isn’t it an acute, infectious, life-threatening disease characterized by painful, uncontrolled contractions of skeletal muscle.
Etiology: a toxin produced by the clostridium tetani, causes tetanus. This bacterium is commonly found in animal feces and, when excreted, lives in the soil. When this infectious bacterium enters stop body in an anaerobic wound such as a puncture, it grows and produces a dangerous toxin. This toxin travels in the blood attaches to motor muscle neurons. The toxins irritate the nerve, producing the stimulus for skeletal muscle contraction. Because of the neurological involvement, tetanus also may be categorized as a nervous system disorder.
Symptoms: bacterial toxin affects the nervous system rather slowly. Farther the distance between the wound in the spinal cord, the slower the progression. 1 to 3 weeks might pass before the onset of symptoms. The jaw muscle are often the first muscles affected with tetany, or rigid muscle contraction, preventing the individual from opening the mouth, hence the term lockjaw. Eventually, muscles of the esophagus, neck, back, arms, and legs are affected. Other symptoms are high fever, tachycardia, dysphagia, and intense pain.
Diagnosis: diagnosis is confirmed by a spatula test, which involves touching the posterior pharyngeal wall with a soft-tipped instrument. A positive result is an involuntary contraction of the muscles causing the patient to bite down on an instrument.
Treatment:treatment is a prompt and immediate cleansing of wounds with special consideration given to puncture-type wounds. Immunization might be needed, depending on the individual’s immunization history. Tetanus antibodies must be boosted approximately every 7 to 10 years throughout life. Care of an individual with tetanus includes symptomatic treatment, often including respiratory, nutritional, and hydration support. Antibiotics and muscle relaxants also can be administered. Even with the best of care, tetanus is usually fatal due to respiratory failure. If the individual survives, the disease process usually lasts 6 to 8 weeks. Surprisingly, the disease usually does not leave any permanent disability, but it also does not confer any lasting immunity to tetanus.
Prevention: tetanus can be prevented by vaccination. It is recommended that adults receive a booster vaccine every 10 years. Standard care practice in many places is to give the booster to any patient with a puncture wound who is uncertain of when he or she was last vaccinated or if he or she has had fewer than three lifetime doses of the vaccine.
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System Lupus erythema toss
Description: systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disorder that affects the connective tissue throughout the body. One of the main characteristics is a butterfly-patterned rash across the nose and face.
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Strain
Description: a strain is a very common overstretching injury of a muscle.
Etiology: individuals commonly have lumbar strains from lifting too much weight, lifting improperly, lifting repetitively. Strained backs are common after a weekend of activity by an individual not in adequate physical condition.
Symptoms: symptoms include soreness, pain, and tenderness.
Diagnosis: strains, in most cases, are based on a history and physical exam. Examination might reveal swelling and tenderness in the affected area.
Treatment: treatment includes rest, moist heat, and the use of analgesics and anti-inflammatory medications. As pain subsides, physical therapy might be an initiated to restore strength and flexibility. A strain is less serious than a sprain.
Prevention: Avoiding extreme fatigue and warming up before exercise can help prevent strains.
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Sprain
Description: a sprain is a traumatic injury to a joint with partial or complete tearing of ligaments.
Etiology : sports activities commonly lead to sprains. The ankle joint commonly affected and can become so painful that the joint cannot be used. The degree of ligament tearing, plus involvement of associate attendance, muscles, and blood vessels, determines the degree of injury. Severe sprains can exhibit complete tearing of the ligaments.
Symptoms: symptoms include varying degrees of swelling, pain, heat and redness to purple or dark blue discoloration from blood vessel hemorrhage.
Diagnosis: physical examination is all that is needed for diagnosis, although x-rays might be taken to rule out fracture. In extreme cases, MRI and arthroscopy can be used.
Treatment: treatment depends on the severity of the sprain. Mild sprains are treated by implementing the concepts rice: rest, ice, compression, and elevation. As the sprain heals and pain resolves, light exercise and gradual walking a recommended.
Prevention: regular exercise, stretching, strengthening to maintain good physical condition are the best provisions for sprains.
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Dislocation and subluxations
Description: dislocation is the complete separation of a bone from its normal position in a joint. A subluxation is a partial separation.
Etiology: Dislocations occur with major traumatic injury such as MVAs, contact sports, or falls and can cause a fracture as well. Dislocations can also be related to joint abnormalities or diseases. In the case of disease, the dislocation might occur frequently and without cause.
Symptoms: dislocation causes acute pain and obvious joint deformity. In ball and socket joints, the ball can be totally anterior or posterior to the socket. The joint tissue rapidly swells, making week reduction difficult.
Diagnosis: a history and physical exam by physician is adequate for diagnosis. An x-ray can be helpful in determining the extent of the injury.
Treatment: because of the swelling, a dislocated joint should be reduced or position immediately. Even with emergency treatment general anesthesia might be needed for the reduction procedure.
Prevention: maintaining muscle strength around the joint will help prevent these conditions. Individual bandage wraps, braces, special padding can also help.
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Low back pain
Description: the back or lumbar area of the spine is very susceptible to stress or strain.
Etiology: the stress can be increased by such factors as obesity, poor posture, we abdominal muscles, and constant or improper lifting. These factors are more likely to cause LBP in individuals who have spinal deformities or disease affecting the spine. Some disorders that affect the spine and often lead to LBP include Spinal deformities, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, and bone cancer, to name just a few. X-ray examinations are usually helpful in determining the cause of LBP, But further detailed study with a CT scan or MRI might be needed.
Symptoms: LBP is a very common disorder of the muscle skeletal system. It might be acute and resolve in a few days, or it might be a chronic discomfort that lasts a lifetime.
Diagnosis: x-rays, CT, and MRI assist in the diagnosis of low back pain.
Meant: treatment of acute LBP is usually rest, warm moist heat, analgesics, and anti-inflammatory medications. Lumbar spasms are common and very painful. These spasms often twist the back normal position. Muscle relaxants might be prescribed for acute attacks, but rest and application of heat are usually adequate to control spasms. After the acute attacks subsides, a daily exercise program including aerobic walking is very beneficial in building muscle tone and decreasing the risk of further attacks. One of most common causes of LBP is a herniated intervertebral disc or herniated nucleus purposes.
Prevention: developing and maintaining a regular walking and exercise program are the best preventative measure for back pain prevention. Lifting properly is also an important preventative measure.
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Herniated nucleus purposes
Description: HNP is commonly called herniated disc, ruptured disc, slipped disc, or bulging disc. All these terms are similar.
Etiology: HNP is the protrusion of the soft center of a disc in the spinal cord or spinal nerve.
Symptoms: pressure on the spinal nerves can cause pain in the sciatic nerve, called sciatica, which radiates down the backside the delay.
Diagnosis: diagnosis involves physical examination, often confirmed by a CT scan, MRI, or myelogram. And myelogram involves injecting dye into the spinal canal and taking pictures to reveal compression on the spinal cord or spinal nerves.
Treatment: Two minutes HNP is often the same as for LBP. Extensive exercise therapy can reduce the size of the protrusion and relieve the associate LBP. If pain persists after therapy, or if the disk is found to be causing severe spinal cord or spinal nerve compression, surgery for disc removal might be needed. Surgery to remove the desk or to cut away vertebra to open the area around the nerve is called the diskectomy or laminectomy, respectively. A relatively new procedure to relieve the pain from osteoporotic compression fractures can also be performed. In this treatment, a large-bore needle is inserted with extra guidance into the compressed vertebra. A balloon is inserted into the bone to the needle and inflated, restoring the height of the vertebra. Sometimes, bone cement is injected into the bone to make sure it does not collapse again.
Prevention: proper lifting, weight control, and maintaining a good exercise and walking program are all preventative measures.
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Bursitis
Description: bursitis is the inflammation of a bursa or small, fluid filled sac near joints. Bursae help reduce friction during movement.
Etiology: repetitive motion often lead to irritation of the bursa, resulting in bursitis. Any joint can be affected, but bursitis of the shoulder is the most common type. Bursitis that occurs in the elbow is commonly called tennis elbow.
Symptoms: symptoms include severe pain that limits motion in the joint.
Diagnosis: bursitis is identified by location of pain or swelling and by pain with motion of the tissues in the affected area. X-ray testing can also help.
Treatment: Rest, application of moist heat, and use of analgesics and anti-inflammatory medications will usually resolve the condition. If bursitis persists, further treatment of the bursa includes injection with corticosteroids, draining, and surgical incision. Active range of motion exercises are needed after pain subsides to regain and maintain joint motion.
Prevention: identifying and modifying activities that cause or aggravate the problem is the best prevention. Taking frequent breaks, especially from repetitive activities, is also helpful. Exercising and stretching the muscle, ligaments,and tendons is the area of injury is important.
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Tennis elbow
Description: tennis elbow is a type of bursitis that affects the elbow area.
Etiology: this bursitis not always caused by playing tennis, as it name suggests. Tennis elbow is a repetitive motion injury. Symptoms: the most common symptom is a severe, burning pain on the outside of the elbow. Pain can be made worse by pressing on the outside surface of the elbow or by lifting or gripping objects. Lifting even the smallest object, such as a coffee cup, can lead to extreme pain.
Diagnosis: diagnosis can be confirmed by eliciting increased pain when the middle finger is pushed backward or extended against resistance.
Treatment: treatment is the same as with bursitis. Application of a wide strap just below the elbow will change and support muscle movement in the forearm, thus reducing some of the pain.
Prevention: stretching and strengthening the arm muscles so that they are flexible and strong enough to support activities is the best prevention.
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Tendinitis
Description: tendinitis is inflammation of a tendon or connective tissue that attaches muscle to bones. Tendinitis can occur in any tendon, but most often, it affects the shoulder.
Etiology: tendinitis is commonly a repetitive motion injury but also can be caused by calcium deposits. Athletes in baseball, basketball, swimming, antennas are often affected. Tendinitis also can occur in association with bursitis.
Symptoms: pain, gradual or sudden and severe, is the main symptom.
Diagnosis:a physical examination revealing tenderness along the involved tendon along with pain when the muscle to which the tendon is attached is moved or worked against resistance will support the diagnosis.
Treatment: treatment is rest, application of ice, and use of analgesics and anti-inflammatory medication. Active range of motion exercises can be initiated, after the pain subsides, to restore motion. If joint adhesions have developed, surgical intervention might be necessary to create the joint and restore mobility.
Prevention: strengthening exercise, avoiding repetitive activities, and overuse of the arm or leg are preventative measures..
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Carpal tunnel
Description: carpal tunnel syndrome is a repetitive motion injury affecting the hands and commonly seen in individuals who perform computer data entry, work at manufacturing jobs, or do any task that requires continuous, repetitive finger and wrist motions.
Etiology: the blood vessels, tendons, nerves that feed or innervate the hands,pass through a tunnel in the wrist area formed by the carpal tunnel ligament. The repetitive motion causes inflammation of the tendon, resulting in pressure on the medical nerve.
Symptoms: symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome often include numbness, pain, swelling, coolness, and discoloration in the affected hand and fingers.
Diagnosis: diagnosis is confirmed by history, physical examination, and testing. Positive results of a Phalen’s maneuver, performed by flexing the rest as far as possible and watching for symptoms, is sufficient for diagnosis. A positive test is one that results in numbness in the median nerve area within 60 seconds of the maneuver.
Treatment: treatment consists of stopping the repetitive motion, resting the hand, splinting, administration of anti-inflammatory medications, and physical therapy. Carpal tunnel syndrome not relieved by these measures maye require surgery to split the carpal ligament, enlarging the tunnel and relieving pressure on the median nerve.
Prevention: prevention of carpal tunnel syndrome is the best plan And could be accomplished by ergonomic principles and job rotation to improve hand positions and provide adequate rest periods, respectively
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Plantar Fasciitis
Description plantar fasciitis is also called calcaneal spur or heel spur. The planter fascia is a thick, fibrous, connective tissue that runs the link of the bottom or plantar surface of the foot. The plantar fascia attaches to the heel, or calcaneal area of the foot, and helps to develop the art to the foot.
Diagnosis: history and physical exam is usually sufficient for diagnosis. The classic history is a complaint of pain in the foot during the first steps after getting out of bed or after sitting for long period of time.
Treatment: treatment includes rest, application of ice, use of analgesics and anti-inflammatory medication, and use of a heel pad or orthotic that relieves pressure on the heel. After pain subsides, exercises to strengthen the foot might help prevent reinjury. Surgery to remove the heel spur and release the planter fascia has proven ineffective in most instances.
Prevention: Steps to prevent plantar fascia items include wearing shoes with good arch support, exercising to stretch the Achilles tendon, maintaining proper body weight, and avoiding going barefoot.
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Torn Rotator Cuff
Description: the rotator cuff compromises a group of muscles that holds the head of the humerus in the shoulder socket area.
Etiology: tears are commonly caused by traumatic injuries baseball, basketball, and tennis.
Symptoms: tears in the tendon that hold these muscles to the bone produce a snapping sound, followed by acute pain and the inability of the individual to abduct or raise the arm.
Diagnosis: diagnosis is made by a physical examination and can be confirmed with a CT scan or arthroscopy.
Treatment: a cute rotator cuff tears are surgically repaired to restore motion of the shoulder. Postoperatively, the individual is placed in a shoulder immobilizer for 3 to 4 weeks. Analgesics and anti-inflammatory medications can be administered for acute pain. Active rehabilitation exercises needed postoperatively to restore shoulder function.
Prevention: daily exercise to maintain muscle strength and flexibility in the shoulder is the best preventative measure.
Tell the description, etiology,symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of:
Torn meniscus
Description: there are two semilunar cartilages and each knee joint, forming a lateral and medial meniscus. The meniscus is attached to the top of the tibia and provides cushioning for the distal femur.
Etiology: athletes participating in football, baseball, soccer, tennis, may suffer with this injury. The tear usually results from a sudden twisting of the leg while the knee is flexed.
Symptoms: symptoms include acute pain with weight-bearing on the affected knee. The individual might feel that the knee is locking or giving. Full flexion or extension of the knee might not be possible due to increased pain.
Diagnosis: physical examination of the knee along with x-ray or MRI confirms a diagnosis.
Treatment: treatment is immobilization, elevation, and application of ice to decrease inflammation and pain. Analgesics anti-inflammatory medications also can be needed. If surgical treatment is needed, it is commonly done arthroscopically or with the use of the scope to look into the knee. An extensive exercise rehabilitation program is begun postoperatively.
Prevention: regular exercise, including strength training, aids in prevention of tears.
Tell the description, etiology,symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of:
Cruciate ligament tears
Cruciate ligaments are located inside the knee joint. They work as a pair and form a cross, giving the knee front-to-back and rotary stability.
Etiology: This ligaments are often injured when the leg is twisted or hit from the front or back while in a planted or weight-bearing position.
Symptoms: a popping sound is commonly heard at the time of injury, followed by pain and swelling of the knee. Knee instability, front to back, is a primary sign of cruciate ligament tear.
Diagnosis: diagnosis involves clinical examination, joint stability testing, and possible CT scanning.
Treatment: treatment depends on the degree of injury and can very from immobilization to surgical intervention.
Prevention: maintaining excellent strength, flexibility, and endurance of the hamstrings and quadriceps muscles can prevent some anterior cruciate ligament tears.(ACL)
Tell the description, etiology,symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of:
Shin splints
Description: shin splint is a term used to describe an overuse injury to the periostereum and extensor muscles of the lower leg.
Etiology: shinsplints occur routinely with a sudden increase in activity or a new exercise routine, commonly occurring in runners, joggers, and high-impact aerobics enthusiast. Running on hard surfaces can also cause the problem.
Symptoms: pain and tenderness along the inner aspect of the tibia, worsening with exercise and disappearing with rest, are common symptoms.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis is usually based on clinical examination, but x-ray examination can rule out a stress fracture.
Treatment: rest, analgesics, anti-inflammatory medications, and alternating ice and heat treatment are usually beneficial.
Prevention: Proper conditioning, stretching exercises, and padded exercise shoes assist in preventing this disorder.
