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MCAT Psychology + Sociology > Chapter 5 > Flashcards

Chapter 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

Non-associative learning

A

When organism is repeatedly exposed to stimulus

Habitual or sensitization

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2
Q

Habit

A

Action performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

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3
Q

Dishabituation

A

Previously habituated stimulus is removed

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4
Q

Sensitization

A

Increase in responsiveness due to repeated stimulus or particularly noxious stimulus

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5
Q

Desensitization

A

Stimulus that previously evoked strong response does not provoke such strong response anymore

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6
Q

Associative learning

A

One event, object, or action is directly connected with another
Classical or operative

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7
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Two stimuli are paired in such a way that a response to one of the stimuli changes
Pavlov’s dogs

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8
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Does not initially elicit intrinsic response

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9
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Stimulus that elicits unconditioned response

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10
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

Originally neutral, but paired with unconditioned to produce conditioned response

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11
Q

Conditioned response

A

Learned response to the conditioned stimulus

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12
Q

Acquisition

A

Process of learning conditioned response

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13
Q

Extinction

A

Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired - conditional response eventually stops occuring

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14
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

Extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimuli is presented after some period of time

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15
Q

Generalization

A

When stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response

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16
Q

Discrimination

A

Opposite of generalization

When conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimulus

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17
Q

Taste-aversion

A

Long-lasting association in people and animals

Caused by nausea and vomiting

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18
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Reinforcement and punishment

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19
Q

Reinforcement

A

Anything that will increase the likelihood that preceding behaviour will be repeated

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20
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Some sort of desirable stimulus occurs immediately following a behaviour

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21
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Some sort of undesirable stimulus occurs immediately following a behaviour

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22
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

Reinforcers that are somehow innately satisfying or desirable
ie. food, avoiding pain

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23
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A

Things that are learned to be reinforcers

Neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned

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24
Q

Reinforcement schedule

A

Operant conditioning requires a schedule
Continuous: actions are reinforced
Intermittent: actions are reinforced or not

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25
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Actions are reinforced quickly but quickly extinct

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26
Q

Intermittent reinforcement

A

Actions are either reinforced or not
But kept longer than continuous reinforcement
Fixed-interval, fixed-ratio, variable-interval, variable-ratio

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27
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule

A

Provides reinforcement after set number of instances of behaviour

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28
Q

Variable-ratio schedule

A

Provides reinforcement after unpredictable number of occurrences

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29
Q

Fixed-interval schedule

A

Provides reinforcement after set period of time that is constant

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30
Q

Variable-interval schedule

A

Provides reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time

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31
Q

Positive punishment

A

Behaviour is followed by consequence

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32
Q

Negative punishment

A

Behaviour is followed by removal of desired stimulus

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33
Q

Escape

A

Individual learns to get away from averse stimulus by engaging in a particular behaviour

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34
Q

Avoidance

A

Person performs behaviour to ensure an averse stimulus is not presented

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35
Q

Behaviourism

A

All psychological phenomena are explained by describing the observable antecedents of behaviours and its consequences

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36
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

Focus on the brain, cognitions, and their effects on how we navigate the world

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37
Q

Insight learning

A

When previously learned behaviours are combined in unique ways

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38
Q

Latent learning

A

Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behaviour until it is required

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39
Q

Short-term memory

A

Lasts seconds to hours

Can be converted into long term memory through consolidation

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40
Q

Consolidation

A

Process of turning short-term memories into long term memories

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41
Q

Long-term potentiation

A

Following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in synaptic strength between two neurons leading to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli
Increased chance of neuron firing after connection being stimulated

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42
Q

Innate behaviours

A

Things we know how to do instinctively

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43
Q

Observational learning

A

AKA social learning and vicarious learning

Learning through watching and imitating others

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44
Q

Modeling

A

An action performed (modelled) by another person

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45
Q

Albert Bandura

A

Used Bobo doll and adults to model behaviour for children

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46
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Located in premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and inferior parietal cortex
Fire when performing tasks and when observing other perform tasks
Help learn through imitation

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47
Q

Vicarious emotions

A

Mirror neurons could be responsible

Ie. empathy

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48
Q

Persuasion

A

One method of attitude and behaviour change

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49
Q

Elaborate likelihood model

A

Defines when/how people will be influenced - content vs. superficial

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50
Q

Three components of persuasiveness

A
  1. Message characteristics
  2. Source characteristics
  3. Target characteristics
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51
Q

Two cognitive routes of persuasion

A
  1. Central - content, lasting change

2. Peripheral - superficial, temporary change

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52
Q

Social cognitive theory

A

How we interpret and respond to external events, and how past situations have affects on our behaviour
Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors have influences on person’s attitude change

53
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

Interaction between person’s behaviours, personal factors, and environment

54
Q

Three ways person and environment interact

A
  1. Person chooses environment that shapes them
  2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment
  3. Person’s personality influences the situation to which they then react
55
Q

Behavioural genetics

A

Determine the role of inheritance on behavioural traits

56
Q

IQ

A

Intelligence Quotient

57
Q

Fluid intelligene (Gf)

A

Ability to think on your feet

58
Q

Crystallized intelligence (Gc)

A

Ability to recall and apply already-learned information

59
Q

Theory of multiple intelligences

A

8 different intelligence modalities

Logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, interpersonal

60
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

Being well attuned to own emotions

61
Q

Intellectual disability

A

Those with IQ lower than 2 standdev from mean - less than 70
Also have difficulty adapting to demands of everyday life
Can sometimes be due to physical cause

62
Q

Reflexes

A

Automatic behaviours
Used for survival, primitive
Originate in central nervous system

63
Q

Moro reflex

A

Startle reflex due to loud sound or sudden movement

64
Q

Rooting reflex

A

Response to touching or stroking baby cheek - baby begins to look for nipple

65
Q

Sucking reflex

A

Anything touching roof of baby’s mouth - sucking

66
Q

Babinski reflex

A

Response to sole of foot being stroked, big toe move upwards or towards top of foot and other toes fan upwards

67
Q

Tonic neck reflex

A

In response to head being turned to the side, baby will stretch out its arm on that side and bend other at the elbow

68
Q

Palmar grasp reflex

A

Stroking baby’s palm, baby will grasp

69
Q

Walking/stepping reflex

A

When baby’s feet touch flat surface, they will try to walk

70
Q

Reflexive movements

A

Primitive, involuntary movements to prime the neuromuscular system and form basis for more sophisticated movement to come

71
Q

Rudimentary movements

A

First voluntary movements as child, occur in predictable stages between 0-2
Rolling, sitting, crawling, standing and walking
Foundation on which fundamental movements are built

72
Q

Fundamental movements

A

2-7yo
Child is learning to manipulate body through running, jumping, throwing and catching
Highly influenced by environment

73
Q

Specialized movement

A

Children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks
Can be divided into transitional substage and application substage

74
Q

Transitional substage

A

Stage when combinations of movements occur

ie. gasping, throwing, jumping - combined to shoot ball

75
Q

Application substage

A

Conscious decisions to apply skills to specific types of activities
(ie. choosing baseball or basketball)

76
Q

Maturation

A

Sequence of biological growth processes in human development

77
Q

Lifelong application stage

A

Beginning in adolescence and progressing through adulthood

Movements are continuously refined and applied to normal daily activities

78
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

Do not remember anything before age of 3.5 usually

Young children are still capable of learning and memory

79
Q

Stranger anxiety

A

Crying and clinging to caregiver

Peaks around 13mo then gradually declines

80
Q

Contact comfort

A

Baby monkey experiment

Contradicts that stranger anxiety is due to nourishment - actually about comfort

81
Q

Securely attached infants

A

Will play when mother is in room, will become distressed when she leaves, but will be easily comforted
Responsive mothers

82
Q

Insecurely attached infants

A

Less likely to explore in presence of mother (can even cling)
May cry or seem indifferent at mom’s departure and return
Unresponsive mothers

83
Q

Parenting style categories (3)

A
  1. Authoritarian
  2. Permissive
  3. Authoritative
84
Q

Authoritarian parents

A

Attempting to control children with strict rules that they are expected to follow unconditionally
Punishment instead of discipline and will not explain reasoning behind their rules
Children have difficulty - aggressive, shy, awkward

85
Q

Permissive parents

A

Few rules and demands

Children tend to lack self-discipline, may be self involved and demanding, poor social skills

86
Q

Authoritative parents

A

Listen to children, encourage independence, place limits on behaviour, consistently follow through with consequences
Tends to produce happier children, who have good emotional control and regulation

87
Q

Adolescence

A

Transitional stage between childhood and adulthood
Starts with puberty and ends with achievement of independent adult status
Usually encompasses teenage years

88
Q

Three major brain changes during adolescence

A
  1. Cell proliferation
  2. Synaptic pruning
  3. Myelination
89
Q

Encoding

A

Process of transferring sensory information into our memory system

90
Q

Serial position effect

A

Occurs when one is trying to learn a series, in immediate recall condition, individual is more likely to recall first and last items on the list

91
Q

Primary effect

A

More likely to recall first thing on the list - more time to be transferred into long-term memory

92
Q

Recency effect

A

More likely to recall last thing on the list - still in phonological loop

93
Q

Mnemonic

A

Technique for improving retention and retrieval of information from memory

94
Q

Rehearsal

A

Use of phonological loop through repeating

95
Q

Chunking

A

Information to be remembered is organized in discrete groups of data

96
Q

Hierarchies

A

For organization - into groups

97
Q

Depth of processing

A

Information thought on a deeper level is more likely to be remembered

98
Q

Dual coding hypothesis

A

Easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

99
Q

Methods of loci

A

Imagining your way through a familiar place and in each place, leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered

100
Q

Self-reference effect

A

It is easier to remember thing that are personally relevant

101
Q

Sensory memory

A

Initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Very brief snapshot that quickly decays
Iconic and echoic memory

102
Q

Iconic memory

A

Brief photographic memory for visual information

Decays very quickly

103
Q

Echoic memory

A

Memory for sound, which lasts 3-4 seconds

104
Q

Short-term memory

A

Usually about 7 items

only retained for about 20 seconds unless actively processed

105
Q

Long-term memory

A

Information that is retained and sometimes indefinitely - infinite capacity

106
Q

Implicit (procedural) memory

A

Conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something

107
Q

Explicit (declarative memory)

A

Able to declare or voice what is known

108
Q

Semantic memory

A

Memory for factual information

109
Q

Episodic memory

A

Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance

110
Q

Nodes

A

Sites on a map - how long-term memories are organized into a network

111
Q

Association

A

Connection of nodes in long-term memory

Strength of association is reliant on how frequently and deeply this connection is made

112
Q

Response threshold

A

Node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbours
Effect of input signals is cumulative - summation of multiple nodes

113
Q

Spreading activation

A

Nodes fire and send stimulus to its neighbours, activation of a few nodes leads to pattern of activation within the network

114
Q

Retrieval

A

Process of finding information stored in memory

115
Q

Recall

A

The ability to retrieve information

116
Q

Free recall

A

Retrieving the item out of tin air

117
Q

Cued recall

A

Retrieving the information when provided with a cue

118
Q

Recognition

A

Identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented

119
Q

Relearning

A

Proces of learning material that was originally learned

120
Q

Interference

A

Can result in failure to retrieve information that is in storage
Passage of time can cause more opportunity for interference

121
Q

Proactive interference

A

Information that is previously learned interferes with ability to recall information learned later

122
Q

Retroactive interference

A

When newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously

123
Q

Positive transfer

A

Old information facilitates the learning of new information

124
Q

Schema

A

Mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world
Can lead to misremembering, especially with leading questions

125
Q

Misinformation effect

A

When people are exposed to subtle misinformation, they are susceptible tot he misinformation effect, tendency to misremember

126
Q

False memories

A

Occurs when repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events
Inaccurate recollections of an event and may be the result of implanting of ideas

127
Q

Source monitoring

A

When individuals forget source of information

128
Q

Neural plasticity

A

Refers to malleability of the brain’s pathways

129
Q

Neurogenesis

A

Birth of new neurons

Small extent in hippocampus and cerebellum

MCAT Psychology + Sociology (5 decks)

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