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BIOL 230 > Chapter 4: Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 4: Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Metabolism

A

refers to all of the chemical reactions that occur in the body – two type

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2
Q

Catabolism

A
  • Chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules into smaller molecules
  • Ex. Disassembly of a protein into individual amino acids
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3
Q

Anabolism

A
  • Combine smaller molecules to form larger more complex molecules
  • Ex. Formation of peptide bonds between amino acid during protein synthesis
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4
Q

chemical energy

A

is a form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds and molecules

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5
Q

two principle forms of energy:

A
  1. potential energy (energy stored by matter due to its position)
  2. kinetic energy (energy associated with matter in motion)
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6
Q

Law of conservation of energy

A

although energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it may be converted
from one form to another

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7
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

release more energy than they absorb
- occur as nutrients, such as glucose and are broken down
- catabolic reactions

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8
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

absorb more energy than they release
- anabolic reactions

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9
Q

Activation energy

A

the collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of the reactants molecules so a reaction can start

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10
Q

2 properties that influence the chance that a collision occurs and causes a chemical reaction:

A
  1. concentration
  2. temperature
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11
Q

Concentration

A

more particles in a space = more collisions
* adding more particles or increasing pressure forces them closer together, making collisions happen more often

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12
Q

temperature

A

higher temperature = faster moving particles
* when particles move faster, they collide with more force, increases chance for a reaction

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13
Q

Catalysts

A

chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur
- it lowers the amount of energy needed to start the reaction
- it stays unchanged at the end of the reaction

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14
Q

Enzymes

A

catalyze chemical reactions, accelerate the conversion of reactants into products by lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction to occur
- Usually end in the suffix -ase (lactase, elastase)
- Can be grouped according to the types of chemical reactions they catalyze

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15
Q

three major properties of enzymes:

A

1) Highly specific
- Fits only one substrate, like a lock and key
- It only catalyzes one specific reaction
2) Very efficient
- Speed up reactions 100 million – 10 billion times faster
3) Subject to a variety of controls
- Cells genes relate enzyme production
- Other substances can active or inhibit enzyme activity

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16
Q

BRR of enzymes

A

B – Binding (Substrate attaches to active site)
R – Reaction (Enzyme transforms substrate)
R – Release & Reuse (Products leave, enzyme is ready for more)

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17
Q

Cofactor

A

non-protein helper that an enzyme needs to function properly it helps the enzyme bind to its substrate or carry out a reaction efficiently

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18
Q

Coenzyme

A

often derived from vitamins, helps enzymes carry out reactions efficiently

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19
Q

factor: temperature

A
  • Enzyme have optimal temperature: usually close to normal body temperature (37 o C)
  • Higher the temperature: weaker the bonds = Enzymes denature (lose shape), stopping the reaction
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20
Q

factor: pH

A
  • Optimal pH: Most enzymes work best at pH 7.4 (neutral, like blood).
  • Too Low or Too High: Changes enzyme shape and function (reaction rate decreases)
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21
Q

factor: substrate concentration

A
  • More substrate = faster reaction (at first)
  • Enzyme saturation: active site of every enzyme molecule is occupied by substrate
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22
Q

factor: nonsubstrate chemical substances

A
  • Selectively binds to the enzyme and alters its activity
  • Substance that increases the reaction rate: activator
  • Substance that decrease/prevents reaction from occurring altogether: inhibitor
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23
Q

Competitive Inhibitors

A

chemical substance that resembles the substrate and binds reversibly to the active site of the enzyme
- Competes with the substrate for the active site

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24
Q

Allosteric Modulator

A

chemical substance that binds reversibly to a site called an allosteric site, which is separate from the active site of the enzyme

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25
Metabolic pathway:
sequence of reactions in which an initial substrate is converted into an end product via a series of intermediates
26
Feedback inhibition
end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway by binding to and inhibiting an enzyme that catalyzes one of the earlier reactions of the pathway (negative feedback)
27
adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
which couples energy-releasing catabolic reactions to energy-requiring anabolic reactions “energy currency” of a living cell
28
phosphorylation
addition of a phosphate group to a molecule – increases its potential energy
29
1) Substrate level phosphorylation
- generates ATP by transferring a phosphate group from a phosphorylated metabolic intermediate - a substrate—directly to ADP - occurs in the cytosol and the mitochondrial matrix of cells
30
2) Oxidative phosphorylation
- produces ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP using energy derived from a series of electron carriers, with oxygen serving as the final electron acceptor
31
cellular respiration
the process by which a nutrient molecule such as glucose, a fatty acid or an amino acid is brown down in the presence of oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2), water, and energy (ATP)
32
1) Glycolysis
Where: Cytosol What happens: - one glucose molecule is converted into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid - NADH is also produced End result: 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 pyruvic acid
33
2) Formation of acetyl coenzyme A
Where: Mitochondrial Matrix What happens: - Pyruvic acid move into the mitochondria - Converted into 2 carbon molecule called acetyl group - CO2 and NADH are released End result: 2 acetyl CoA + 2 NADH + 2 CO2
34
3) The Krebs Cycle
Where: Mitochondrial matrix What happens: - Acetyl coA enters the cycle - ATP, NADH and FADH+ are produced - CO2 is released as a waste product End result: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH+, 4 CO2
35
4) Electron Transport Chain
Where: inner mitochondrial membrane What happens: - NADH, FADH2 release electrons which pass through a chain of proteins - Accept and donate electrons - ATP via oxidative phosphorylation - Oxygen is needed: combines with hydrogen to form water End result: 34 ATP + water (h2O)
36
aerobic vs anaerobic
Aerobic: doesn’t require oxygen Anaerobic: “without oxygen” conditions
37
Aerobic respiration
krebs cycle and ETC require oxygen – when oxygen is present all 4 phases of cellular respiration occur
38
Anaerobic glycolysis:
when glycolysis occurs by itself under anaerobic conditions
39
Fate of pyruvic acid
produced during glycolysis depends on the availability of oxygen Lactic acid (lactate)
40
Coenzyme A (CoA):
used in cellular respiration, derived from pantothenic acid (a B vitamin)
41
Glycogen
polysaccharide that is only stored form of carbs in our bodies
42
Glycogenesis
synthesis of glycogen – splitting glycogen into its glucose subunits
43
glucogenesis
process by which glucose is formed from these non carb sources
44
keto acids
Amino acids such as alanine, cysteine, glycine, serine, and threonine are converted to glucose once they have been deaminated (their amino groups removed) to form substances
45
fate of lipids
- used for energy (can be broken down to produce ATP) - stored as triglycerides - used for structural and functional roles
46
phospholipids
special molecules that make up the cell membrane and help control what enters and exits the cell 1. hydrophilic head (water loving) 2. hydrophobic tails (water fearing)
47
What is lipolysis?
Lipolysis is the breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol + fatty acids for energy.
48
What happens to glycerol during lipolysis?
- it can be converted into glucose if energy is not needed. - It can be used for ATP production if energy is low.
49
What happens to fatty acids during lipolysis?
- Fatty acids go through beta-oxidation, where they are cut into 2-carbon pieces. - These pieces turn into Acetyl CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle to make ATP
50
What is ketogenesis?
Ketogenesis is the process where the liver makes ketone bodies from fatty acids when the body relies heavily on fat for energy.
51
How do ketones provide energy?
Ketones travel in the blood and are used by cells as an alternative energy source when glucose is low
52
Ketosis
Mild increase in ketones, can be normal (like during fasting).
53
Ketoacidosis
Excess ketones make blood too acidic, which can cause coma or death.
54
What is lipogenesis?
Lipogenesis is the process where the body stores excess calories by turning: - Extra carbs, proteins, or fats into triglycerides for storage - Other lipids like phospholipids (for membranes) & lipoproteins (for cholesterol transport)
55
What happens to proteins after digestion?
Unlike fats and carbs, proteins are not stored in the body. Instead, amino acids are used for: - Making ATP (energy production). - Building new proteins for growth and repair. - Converting into glucose or fats when needed
56
What is protein catabolism?
Protein catabolism is the breakdown of proteins into amino acids for energy.
57
What happens to proteins during digestion?
Proteins are broken down into amino acids
58
Where does deamination occur, and why is it important?
Occurs in the liver Importance: It allows the body to use amino acids for ATP production or convert them into glucose or fats
59
What happens to the amino group (NH₂) after deamination?
- The amino group becomes ammonia (NH₃), which is toxic. - The liver converts ammonia into urea. - Urea is filtered by the kidneys and removed through urine.
60
How can amino acids be used for energy?
If ATP is needed: The keto acids enter the Krebs cycle to produce ATP. If ATP is not needed: The amino acids are converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis) or fat (lipogenesis) for storage.
61
What is Protein Anabolism?
Protein Anabolism = Building new proteins from amino acids. Happens in ribosomes and is controlled by DNA & RNA. Used to make muscle, enzymes, hormones, and body tissues. Important during growth (childhood, pregnancy, recovery from injury)
62
What is Transamination?
The process of making non-essential amino acids by transferring an amino group from an amino acid to pyruvic acid or an acid in the Krebs cycle
63
Nutrients
chemical substances in food that body cells use for growth, maintenance and repair
64
Minerals
inorganic elements that constitute about 4% of total body mass and are concentrated most heavily in the skeleton (calcium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, zinc, boron, silicon)
65
Vitamins
organic nutrients required in small amounts to maintain growth and normal metabolism - Do not provide energy or serve as the bodys building materials - Most vitamins with known functions are coenzymes - Derived into fat soluble and water soluble
66
What are the possible fates of the amino acids from protein catabolism?
- Used for energy (ATP production) - Converted into Glucose (Gluconeogenesis) - Converted into fatty acids and stored as fat (lipogenesis)

BIOL 230 (15 decks)

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