Chapter 4: mechanisms of Classical conditioning Flashcards
Backward conditioning
a procedure in which the CS is presented shortly after the US on each trial
compound stimulus test
a test procedure that identifies a a stimulus as a conditioned inhibitor if that stimulus reduces the responding elicited by a conditioned excitatory stimulus
conditional or conditioned response
the response that comes to be made tot he CS as a result of classical conditioning
conditional or conditioned stimulus
a stimulus that does not elicit a particular response initially, but comes to do so as a result of becoming associated with an US
Conditioned suppression
suppression of ongoing behaviour (e.g.. drinking) produced by the presentation of a CS that has been conditioned to elicit fear through association with an aversive US
Conditioning trial
a training episode involving presentation of a CS with or without the US
CS-US interval is also known as
interstimulus interval
evaluative conditioning
changing the hedonic value or liking of an initially neutral stimulus by having that stimulus associated with something that is already liked or disliked
Explicitly unpaired control
a procedure in which both CS and US are presented, but with sufficient time between them so that they do not become associated with each other
goal tracking
conditioned behaviour elicited by a CS that consists of approaching the location where the US is usually presented
Inhibitory conditioning
a type of classical conditioning in which the CS becomes a signal for the absence of the US
interstimulus interval
amount of time between the seat of the CS and the start of the US during a classical conditioning trial
aka CS-US interval
intertrial interval
the amount of time that elapses between 2 successive trials
latency
the time between a stimulus (or the start of a trial) and the response that is made to the stimulus
lick suppression procedure
a procedure for testing fear conditioning in which presentation of a fear conditioned CS slows down the rate of drinking
long-delayed conditioning
conditioning procedure in which the US occurs more than several minutes after the start of the CS, as in taste aversion learning
magnitude of the response
a measure of the size, visor, or extent of a response
object learning
learning associations between different stimulus features of an object, such as what it looks like how it tastes
probability of a response
the likelihood of making the response, usually represented in terms of the percentage of trials on which the response occurs
pseudo-conditioning
increased responding that may occur to a stimulus whose presentations are intermixed with presentations of a US in the absence of the establishment of an association between the stimulus and the US
random control procedure
a procedure in which the CS and US are presented at random times with respect to each other
retardation of acquisition test
a test procedure that identifies a stimulus as a conditioned inhibitor if that stimulus is slower to acquire excitatory properties than a comparison stimulus
short-delayed conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which the CS is initiated shortly before the US on each conditioning trial
sign tracking
autoshaping
movement toward and possibly contact with a stimulus that signals the availability of a positive reinforcer, such as food.
Simultaneous conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which the CS and the US are presented at the same time on each conditioning trial
summation test
aka compound stimulus test
temporal coding hypothesis
the idea that Pavlovian conditioning procedures lead not only to learning that the US happens, but exactly when it occurs in relation to the CS.
The CS represents (or codes) the timing of the US
test trial
a trial in which the CS is presented without the US
this allows measurement of the CR in the absence of the US
trace conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which the US is presented after the CS has been terminated for a short period
trace interval
the interval between the end of the CS and the start of the US in trace-conditioning trails
UR
a response that occurs to a stimulus without the necessity of prior training
US
a stimulus that elicits a particular response without the necessity of prior training
is there a limit to conditioning?
no
it’s easier to conditioning some things though
and the ease of conditioning depends on a lot
Conditioning depends on…
- prior experience with each stimulus
- how relevant the CS and the US are to each other
- Presence of other stimuli during conditioning trial
- contingency of CS-US pairing
relevance of the CS and US
the same stimulus may serve as a CS in some experimental situations, and a US in others
- using food as a CS in CTA, but as a US in sign tracking experiment
belongingness! do the CS and US go together naturally?
Need to know _______ responses to the CS and US ______ the experiment
baseline
before
Novelty of Stimuli
classical conditioning is slower when the stimuli used are familiar
Latent inhibition (CS-preexposure) effect
caused by repeated exposures to the Cs before the Cs is used in conditioning trials
US preexposure effect
caused by repeated exposures to the US before the US is used in conditioning trials
Salience of Stimuli
stimulus intensity is crucial!
- must be biologically relevant to the animal model and to the animal state
CS/US intensity effects
ex. drinking suppression in rats
quiet tones = slower learning
learning slower with the 50 db sound than with lights
faster learning in the light and compound condition when compared to the condition where there is only 1 ma shock
learning goes faster if the US stimulus is stronger and if the CS is higher as well!
CSs
- light
- 50 dB tone
- 80 dB tone
- light + tone
US
- ma = shock!
Salience of Stimuli: biologically relevant to the animal model
ex. sexual conditioning in male quail
different CSs signalled access to a female
- more naturalistic CS cues = more salience
the more natural looking the model, the more biologically relevant to the male and the more likely the male all mount the model
Salience of Stimuli: biologically relevant to the animal state
food for hungry animal
water for thirsty animal
satiation
CS-US relevance (belongingness)
Garcia and Koelling (1966)
- rats exposed to bright/noisy/tasty water
- one group is made sick
- other rough given shock
- both groups tested for drinking in the presence of the CSs independently
results: in evolutionary terms:
things that taste weird and are paired with sickness
belong together!
they are easily paired
whereas drinking a water and then getting a shock is not as easily associated
the relevance of the CS to the US changes what is learned about those stimuli
differently learnable in different cases
Examples of classical conditioning without an US
higher order conditioning
sensory pre-conditioning
First order conditioning
regular classical conditioning
higher order conditioning
Cs may serve as a “US”, once conditioned
ex. money
it has not intrinsic value but it buys us the things that we need, its been associated with the thing that gets us what we want
CS1 -> US
- - - > CR
CS2 -> CS1
- - - - > CR
Sensory preconditioning
producing conditioning without presenting the US to one of these pairs
CTA conditoned taste aversion
diff from higher order condition, because here the relationship between the CS1 and the CS2 already existed
CS1 -> Cs2
CS2 -> US
————–> CR
CS1 ————-> CR
Stimulus substitution model
Pavlov
- CS activates neural circuits previously activated by the US
- CS becomes a surrogate or substitute US
New neural connection formed after conditioning (training)
- CS -> CR
pre-existing neural connection
US -> Response!
What makes a CR?
- US is a determining factor for the CR
- response depends on the US
- eyeblink due to puff of air
- salivation due to food
- response depends on the US
Jenkins and Moore (1973)
US determines the CR
- give pigeons different, but related USs with same CR
- see if CRs match USs
- single CS lit button
two diff US, either given food or water after stimulus presentation
within subjects design
autoshaping: illuminated key -> delivery of the US
CR (food): pecked response key as if eating; rapid pecks with beak open
CR (water): pecked response key as if drinking; slower pecking with beak closed, often with swallowing
key almost becomes a substitute for what the bird wants
a difference in a response based on the US that was used
CS as a determining factor if the CR
Timberlake & Grant (1975)
predictions based on stimulus substitution model
- gnawing/biting of CS
- the participant rat should gnaw on the stimulus rat
BUT: they found that the CS elicited social affiliate CRs towards the stimulus rat and not biting or gnawing
this demonstrates that the CS also helps determine the CR
not just the US that determines the response
this goes against pavlov
S-R leanring
new stimulus-response connection between the CS and the CR
- an automatic thing due to pairing with the US
a reflective response formed by making the connection
S-S learning
Cs activates a representation of the Us
- in line with Pavlov’s stimulus substitution
the learning is between the two stimuli (the CS and the US)
S-R leanring prediction
prediction: if you change the value of the US after conditioning, you will still get the same CR, because the US is no longer involved in this pathway
S-S learning prediction
prediction: if you change the value after conditioning of the US, then the response will be affected! (because the US is still involved in this pathway)
no reflexive link between the CS and the CR, but that the CS prompts you to think of the US and that leads to a response
How do you determine which type of learning? (S-S or S-R)
US devaluation paradigm
whats the connection like between these two things?
SR predicts that the CS will still produce the CR because it elicits the reflective response! (only the US used in conditioning is important)
If SS learning, the US value is important, in the consideration of the CR. Therefore you would expect less responding to occur if you devalue the US.
SS learning is the case!!!!!!!
Holland and Rescorla (1975)
US devaluation paradigm
Greater CR for control groups than food-devalued groups
= S-S learning!
First order conditioning is done through _____ learning
S-S
Higher order conditioning is done through _______ learning
SR -
higher order learning
we will work for money even if we aren;t currently hungry, thirsty…etc
Preparatory Response Theory (S-S)
The CR occurs to the CS to prepare for the US
(i.e salivation, compensatory response model)
the conditioned response won’t always be the same, its to make sure you’re ready for the arrival of the US
long delay = less effective
focal search vs. general search beaver based on when you expect the arrival of the US
Is there is a long delay between the CS and the US, then the search behaviour will be _____
general
Is there is a short delay between the CS and the US, then the search behaviour will be _____
focal
___ ____ behaviour > _____ _____ behaviour > _______ behaviour
general search
focal search
consummatory
what makes a CR?
learning and homeostasis
the b process is predicting the arrival or the a process and aceunting for it
the prediction part of this comes from classical conditioning
negative feedback loop
Classical conditioning can be used to form ________ responses
anticipatory
feed forward
Conditioned homeostatic responses can cause ________ responses
compensation (anticipation of physiological changes)
players in drug taking behaviour
CS = cues related to drug taking US = pharm. effect of drug UR = physiological effect of drug CR = physiological effects (compensatory-response) Tolerance = habituation + compensatory-response
Drug tolerance
primary effects are still winning out, but the B process is getting stronger
Drug craving
reaction to the cues (CS) without the drug (US)
this explains tolerance and cravings
without the a process
when they don;t take the drug but see the cues they get withdrawal symptoms (i.e decreased HR, sad, depressed).
this is very important with smokers because they have a lot of cues and essential have mini withdrawal symptoms all the time, makes it hard to quit
Drug overdose
Response in new environment (new CS) with increased US administration
when you have the drug without the typical CS cues, your body isn;t prepared for the drug and you get an increased a process and OD
they are no longer habituated because they can’t produce the opponent process
Conditioned drug response in humans
Gave exposure to
- cocaine stimuli
- heroine stimuli
- non-drug stimuli
only people with previous experience with cocaine show anticipatory CR
Morphine Tolerance model
Siegel at al. (1978)
Rats
training:
- morphine paired: audiovisual cue -> morphine
- Morphine unpaired: audiovidual cue/morphine
- saline paired: audiovisual cue -> saline
- saline unpaired: audiovisual cue/saline
Testing:
- each group received audiovisual cue -> morphine
- rats tested for latency to lick paw that was on hot plate (the longer it takes to lick the stronger the effect of the morphine)
Results:
- rats in paired morphne group
- developed compensatory response to drug cues (CS) and removed paw more quickly (drug tolerance!)
- all rats received the same amount of morphine during testing and all rats developed tolerance as testing session progressed
Conditioning depends on
prior experience with each stimulus (CS and US)
- novelty, salience, intensity
CS US relevance to each other, to the model
not always reliant on CS US pairing
presence of other stimuli during conditioning trials
Overshadowing
Cs intnesity and belongingness
salience
they learn more about the louder buzzer (a) because it is more salient, it overshadows b
Blocking
they’ve already learned that L means food
Light and tone = food
is not new
this gives no new info because the light is still indicating food
In case 2 the relationship changes
if A + B = 2x as much food, then you will start to see responding to B
because this is new and something interesting that is happening!
Until blocking, _____ _____ was considered to be sufficient for learning associations
temporal contiguity
Singh and Solman (1990)
how children learn to read
- picture can have an inhibitory effect on learning the word
- picture of lemon -> word lemon (slowest learning!)
- just the word lemon -> fastest learning
Rescorla-Wagner Model
mathematical model of classical conditioning
focus on the level of surprise of the Us
expectation of US related to associative properties of stimuli preceding it (i.e. CSs)
explains why and how classical conditioning happens, the focus is on how surprising is it
can you predict t the presence of the US?
It’s an error correction model
The amount that is learned each time a CS and US are presented together is based on how surprising the US is, and how noticeable the CS is for having caused the US. A US can only support so much learning between multiple CSs.
R-W model equation
change in V = k(h-V)
delta V = chnage in associative strength of US (learning)
- how much is learned this trial?
k = constant related to salience of the CS + US
- how attachable is the Cs for causing the US?
h = maximum possible associative strength of US
V = current associative strength of US
when h = V
there us no more surprise
R-W graph
surprise is larger earlier in training therefore there is more learning (steeper learning curve) compared to later in training
steepness of curve also dependent on K (salience)
R-W and blocking
one stimulus already perfectly predicts the US
therefore a new stimulus when presented with the old stimulus, will not be surprising, and will acquire no associative value
- because V already = h there is no room left
Attentional theories
suggest that amount of learning is based on attention paid to the CS (not effectiveness of the US)
When the consequences of a CS are accurately predicted, other consequences will not attract attention
modern, human-centric theories
information theories
the amount of learning about the CS is based on how often (or how long between) its pairing with the US
Comparator Hypothesis
blocking is not a problem of learning, but performance
if another CS (comparator) already predicts the US, an organism will still learn about a new pared CS
Only show CR when the old CS is extinguished (revaluation)
