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Psych 105 > Chapter 4 - Development Over the Lifespan > Flashcards

Chapter 4 - Development Over the Lifespan Flashcards

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1
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

Changes in biological, physical,
psychological, & behavioural processes across the lifespan

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2
Q

Nature and Nurture

A

Environment or heredity?
- how much genetics and environment are influential on human development
- how much does each one influence

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3
Q

Critical Period

A

Age where experiences MUST
occur
- brain must have certain environmental stimuli to develop properly, like with light

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4
Q

Sensitive Periods

A

Optimal age range
- learning a second language before age 12 as if it were a first

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5
Q

Cross Sectional Research Design

A

Compare DIFFERENT AGES at SAME TIME
– Different cohorts grew up in different time periods
– Different experiences, cultural changes, environmental changes
– Technology; growing up in depression; access to higher education etc.

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6
Q

Longitudinal Research Design

A

Test SAME cohort (same group of people) at different times
– Expensive and time consuming
– People drop out
– Are results generalizable to all people, just this group?

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7
Q

Sequential Research Design

A

COMBINATION of cross-sectional and
longitudinal design
– Test several cohorts as they age
- Very time consuming and expensive

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8
Q

Prenatal Development

A
  1. Germinal
  2. Embryonic
  3. Fetal
    Gary Eats Figs
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9
Q

Germinal stage

A

– First 2 weeks
– Zygote attaches to uterine wall
- 1 sperm fertilizes an ovary

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10
Q

Embryonic Stage

A

– 2nd - 8th week
– Placenta & umbilical cord develop

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11
Q

What Function does the Placenta and Umbilical Cord have in prenatal development?

A

Enables nutrients and oxygen to pass from the mother’s blood to the embryo, and in
turn carry waste products back from the mother to the embryo
- this process speeds up prenatal development, and embryonic cells divide rapidly and become specialized
- bodily organs and systems begin to form,
and by week 8, the heart of the 2cm embryo is beating and the brain is forming

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12
Q

Fetal Stage

A

– Begins at 9th week
– 28 weeks = age of viability (fetus is likely to survive outside the womb in case of premature birth)

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13
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do most human cells have?

A

23 pairs

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14
Q

What does each pair of chromosomes contain?

A

One chromosome from each parent (23 from mother, 23 from the father)

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15
Q

23rd chromosome for Females and Males

A

Females: XX Males: XY

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16
Q

What does the Y chromosome contain?

A

TDF (testis determining factor)

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17
Q

TDF (testis determining factor)

A

Initiates development of testes
– Testes secrete androgens (sex hormones that direct male pattern of organ development)

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18
Q

What is the Critical Period for TDF?

A

6-8 weeks
– Insufficient androgen activity = female

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19
Q

Teratogens

A

Environmental agents that may cause
abnormal fetal development
– Mercury, lead, radiation, nicotine, stress, alcohol

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20
Q

Maternal Malnutrition

A

Miscarriage, premature birth, stillbirth,
impaired brain development

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21
Q

Maternal Stress (stress hormones)

A

Premature birth, infant irritability, attentional
deficits

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22
Q

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

A

Can pass from mother to fetus and produce brain damage, blindness, and deafness, depending on the disease

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23
Q

Nicotine

A

Increase the risk of miscarriage,
premature birth, and low birth weight
– Second-hand smoke through fathers or the environment

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24
Q

Effect of Drug use

A

Babies of pregnant mothers who use heroin or cocaine are often BORN ADDICTED and experience withdrawal symptoms after birth

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25
Q

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

A

Cognitive, behavioural, and
physical deficits caused by
prenatal exposure to alcohol

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26
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A

Disorder within the spectrum
involving a cluster of SEVERE DEVELOPMENTAL ABNORMALITIES
- Abnormal facial features, underdeveloped brains
- intellectual disability, attentional and perceptual deficits, impulsivity, and poor social skills

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27
Q

What did William James suggest about newborn children?

A

That the newborn’s world is a “buzzing, blooming confusion”
– They are passive, disorganized,
and have an empty mind.
- This view is NO LONGER VALID, given our knowledge of prenatal sensory-motor development; the tactile, auditory, and chemical perceptual systems have been stimulated and are operating at birth.

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28
Q

Newborn Sensation and Perception of Vision

A

Visual system is POORLY DEVELOPED at birth.
● VERY NEARSIGHTED: 20/800 at birth (40 times worse than normal adult acuity of 20/20)
● Gets BETTER PROGRESSIVELY (20/100 by 6 months)
● Can focus on an object 20-40 cm away

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29
Q

Preferential Looking Procedure

A

Measures how long infant looks at a stimulus
* Newborns look longer at stimuli THEY FIND INTERESTING
– Determine when ‘detail’ becomes interesting

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30
Q

Colour vision in infants and children

A

Can see few colours as newborns, perceive full range of colours by 3 MONTHS
– Prefer patterned stimuli
– Prefer mother’s face

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31
Q

Newborn sensation and perception of Other Senses

A

Tactile, auditory, & olfactory senses operating at birth
* Orient to significant stimuli
- Will orient towards source of sounds, tactile stimuli, odours
- Most importantly, towards their MOTHER’S FACE, voice, and smell, optimizing their access to food, warmth, and social stimulation

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32
Q

Sound Localization

A

Ability to localize sounds
- U-shaped function, disappears at 4 months, reappears at 6 months

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33
Q

Phoneme Discrimination

A

Ability to detect changes in speech sounds (by 2 months age)
- Exceeds that of an adult, disappears by 1 year of age (as they become native speakers of their own language)

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34
Q

Music Perception

A

Shows similar responses to consonant & dissonant patterns as adults
- Can remember short melodies

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35
Q

Habituation Procedure

A

New stimulus presented (over and over again until the infant is habituated to it)
– Looking time declines 50%
* Recognize familiar faces
* Discriminate different speech sounds (orient toward the stimulus longer)

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36
Q

Classical and Operant Conditioning

A

Acquire classically conditioned responses
* Learn that they can “make things happen”

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37
Q

Imitation

A

Imitate adult facial expressions
- helps infants recognize people and engage with them
- 1 day old

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38
Q

Maturation

A

Genetically programmed biological process that governs our growth
- our bodies, brain and motor skills develop

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39
Q

Cephalocaudal Principle

A

Development is from head to foot
- head develops before the torso, torso develops before legs, so on

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40
Q

Proximodistal Principle

A

Development is from innermost to outer
- shoulder before arms, arms develop before hands and fingers

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41
Q

How much does the human brain weigh at birth?

A

Weighs 25% of adult brain
* 50% by 6 months
* Cells become larger and neural networks form

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42
Q

Stages of Brain Development

A
  • First → brainstem (basic survival
    functions)
  • Last → associative areas of cortex (decision making, reasoning)
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43
Q

Growth rate of the brain in Infants

A
  • 5 years = 90% of adult size
  • New synapses form, unnecessary
    synapses are pruned back
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44
Q

Stage-like Development (motor development)

A

Age of acquiring skill differs, but the sequence is the same
- Some have U-shaped function → stepping reflex (involuntary stepping movement when placing their feet on a surface)

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45
Q

Environmental and Cultural
Influences on Physical Development

A
  • Diet (consistent breast feeding - cognitive development)
  • Enriched environments: interaction with people, access to toys… (helps them to thrive)
  • Physical touch (develop physically and neurologically)
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46
Q

Environmental and Cultural
Influences on Sensory Development

A

Visual deprivation can permanently damage
visual abilities

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47
Q

General Principles of environmental and cultural influences

A
  • Biology sets LIMITS on environmental influences
  • Environmental influences can be POWERFUL (nurturing environments should not be underestimated)
  • Biological & environmental factors INTERACT with each other
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48
Q

What is the purpose of Piaget’s Stage Theory?

A

Understanding the way how children
answer questions
* Natural-born “scientists”

49
Q

What does the brain do in Piaget’s Stage Model

A

Brain builds schemas to achieve understanding

50
Q

Schema

A

A concept or framework that the
child is using to understand a particular experience
- concepts we use to understand the world

51
Q

Assimilation

A

New experiences incorporated into existing schemas
- see a dog, identify it as a dog. Horse is a dog (schema at infancy)
- Piaget

52
Q

Accomodation

A

New experiences cause existing schemas to change
- learn and develop

53
Q

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget’s Stage Theory)

A

Understand world through SENSORY EXPERIENCES & PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS with objects
– Birth to 2 YEARS
– Begin to acquire language
- Object Permenance

54
Q

Object Permanence

A

Understanding that objects continue
to exist even when they can no longer be seen
– Babies do not develop this until bout 8 months
– Peekaboo!

55
Q

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

A

– Ages 2-7
– World represented SYMBOLICALLY through WORDS and MENTAL IMAGES, which also enables pretend play
– Child does not understand conservation
– Preoperational children’s thinking also reflects egocentrism

56
Q

Conservation

A

The object’s mass, quantity or volume does not change, although their outward appearance may change

57
Q

Egocentrism

A

Difficulty in taking someone else’s
perspective
- not understanding that people have different mental states

58
Q

Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

A

– Ages 7-12
– Easily perform basic mental operations involving tangible problems and situations about the PHYSICAL WORLD
– Understanding cause-and-effects
– Children can understand conservation and perspective taking
– Have difficulty with problems that require ABSTRACT REASONING

59
Q

Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

A

– Develops around 11 or 12
– Think logically about CONCRETE & ABSTRACT PROBLEMS (and flexibly)
– Form & test hypotheses

60
Q

Universality Principle

A

Cognitive abilities associated with four stages of develop in same order across cultures

61
Q

Assessment of Piaget’s Stage Theory

A

● Children acquire cognitive skills at earlier ages than Piaget believed
● Development within each stage proceeds inconsistently: Does cognitive development consist of distinct stages?
● Culture influences cognitive development: Cognitive development is considered based on interpersonal skill or social intelligence in different cultures.
● Cognitive development is complex and variable: All children may not follow the same developmental path.

62
Q

Theory of Mind

A

A person’s beliefs about the mind and the ability to understand other people’s mental states. On how the mind works and what others are thinking
- Lying, deception provide evidence for theory of mind
- relates to egocentrism

63
Q

What does Vygotsky think is important?

A

Social Interaction
- relation with the biological maturation of the brain

64
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A

Difference between what children can
do independently & what they can do
with assistance (Vygotsky)
– Provides insight into cognitive abilities
that are in process of maturation
– Others can facilitate child’s cognitive
development within limits of biological
maturation

65
Q

What kind of process is Cognitive Development?

A

A continuous, gradual process rather
than occurring stage by stage

66
Q

How does Cognitive Growth occur?

A

As information processing abilities gradually become more efficient

67
Q

What improves with age in children?

A
  • PROCESSING INFORMATION
  • ATTENTION SPAN and MEMORY
68
Q

What are emotions and what do they reflect?

A

An array of reactions/responses. Emotions reflect our affective states, and could be intense or mild, brief or extended
- Emotions can be reflected in behavior, subjective experience or physiological
reactions

69
Q

Social-Emotional and Personality
Development in infants

A
  • 18 months develop SENSE OF SELF
    Age 2
    – Learn RULES & performance standards
    – Display more COMPLEX EMOTIONS such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, or pride
70
Q

Emotional Regulation

A

The processes by which we evaluate and modify our emotional reactions

71
Q

Term for emotional regulation that increases with age

A

Emotional competence (i.e., emotional
expressiveness and emotion regulation skills)

72
Q

What plays a role in gaining emotional competence?

A

Social interaction with their environment

73
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

A

– 8 major psychosocial stages
– Various crises are relevant at specific ages
– ‘Crisis’ for each stage needs to be resolved
- conflict of each age period is different - related to how we see each other in relation toother people and the world
- Not conceptualized as the distinct theories in Piaget’s theory
- A crisis or a conflict can
be present at any time, but would have special importance in certain age periods

74
Q

What does each stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory create?

A

New Opportunities
– Personality is not fixed in childhood
– Themes / patterns that emerge early in
childhood = important later in life

75
Q

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Crises

A

Age (years) Major Psychosocial Crisis
First year: Basic trust vs. basic mistrust (basic needs are met or not)
1-2: Autonomy (desire to experience individuality and for others to notice it) vs. shame and doubt
3-5: Initiative vs. guilt (children are curious about the world. Ask questions about how things work. If curiosity is encouraged, they feel initiative. If punished for curiosity, they feel guilty)
6–12: Industry vs. inferiority (if children feel encouragement for their achievements in their tasks, or receive praise, they develop industry - striving for achievement; repeated failures or discouragements, lack of praise can
lead to a feeling of inferiority)

76
Q

Attachment

A

Strong emotional bond between children &
primary caregivers

77
Q

Imprinting

A

Biologically primed form of attachment

78
Q

Harry Harlow’s work with attachment

A

Contact with comfort more important than
nourishment in fostering attachment

79
Q

What are the 3 phases in John Bowlby’s Attachment Process?

A
  1. INDISCRIMINATE attachment
    behaviour (newborns)
    - anyone to meet their needs
  2. DISCRIMINATE attachment behaviour (3 months)
    - gets familiar with the primary caregiver, expects them to meet their needs
  3. SPECIFIC attachment behaviour (7-8
    months)
    - knows their caregiver is secure
80
Q

Separation Anxiety

A

Distress over being separated from
primary caregiver
– Begins at 12-16 months of age and decreases through 2-3 years
– Shows similar pattern across cultures

81
Q

Strange Situation Test (Mary Ainsworth
et al., 1978)

A

– Mother plays with baby (12-18 months
old) - stranger enters
– Mother leaves (examines how the baby reacts)
– Stranger leaves - baby alone
– Mother returns

82
Q

Secure Attachment

A

– Explore & react positively to strangers
– Distressed when mother leaves
– Happy when mother returns

83
Q

Anxious-resistant

A

– FEARFUL when mother present
– DEMAND ATTENTION of the mother
– DISTRESSED when mother leaves
– NOT SOOTHED when she returns

84
Q

Anxious-avoidant

A

– Show few signs of attachment
– Seldom cries when mother leaves
– Doesn’t seek contact upon mother’s return

85
Q

Infancy is what kind of period for attachment?

A

A sensitive period
- It is an important component of early social development
– Secure infants are better socially adjusted.

86
Q

What can create problems in social-emotional and personality development?

A

Unfavorable environments and prolonged attachment deprivation (e.g. isolation)
– Not all in deprived environments at risk resilience.
– Placed in nurturing environment at early age leads to improvement in cognitive and social development.

87
Q

What 2 dimensions are the Styles of Parenting determined along?

A
  • Warmth vs. hostility (warmth: love and caring, and responds with more empathy towards the child’s feelings; Hostility: express rejection and behave as if they do not care for the child)
  • Restrictiveness vs. permissiveness
88
Q

Authoritative Parents

A

– Controlling but warm
– Set rules and clearly communicate and enforce them, but also reward children’s compliance with warmth and affection. They communicate high expectations. Caring and support
– Most positive childhood outcomes

89
Q

Authoritarian Parents

A

– Exert control but cold, unresponsive, or rejecting
– Poorer self-esteem, popularity, school performance

90
Q

Indulgent Parents

A

– Warm and caring, but don’t provide guidance and discipline (that helps them learn responsibility and concern for others)
– Children immature, self-centered

91
Q

Neglectful Parents

A

– Not warm, No rules of guidance
– Simply do not care
– Most negative developmental outcomes
- insecurely attached, low achievement motivation, and disturbing relationships
with peers and adults at school, impulsive and aggressive

92
Q

At what age does Gender Identity Develop?

A

Develops arounds 2-3 years of age
– Some sense of gender becomes part of personal identity

93
Q

What is Gender Constancy and when does it develop?

A

Around 6-7 years, understand gender as
something permanent

94
Q

Sex-typing

A

Involves treating others differently based on whether they are female or male
– Certain expectations of expected behaviours, learn them and become ingrained, part of our gender identity
– From infancy onward, girls and boys are viewed and treated differently

95
Q

How can sex-typed stereotypes be learned?

A

Through observation and conditioning
● By age 7-8, stereotyped thinking is firmly in place.
● It becomes more flexible in adolescence

96
Q

Level 1 of Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

A

Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
– Judgments of ‘right’ & ‘wrong’ based on actual or anticipated PUNISHMENT & REWARD rather than internalized moral values
– Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation
(should not steal the drug because he would go to jail)
– Stage 2: Instrumental/hedonistic orientation
(would be gratified and happy)

97
Q

Level 2 of Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

A

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
– Moral judgments based on CONFORMITY to EXPECTATIONS of social groups
(desire to do good so that others can you as good)
– Stage 3: Good child orientation
(expected to do so because of his wife)
– Stage 4: Law and order orientation
(steal the drug, but go to prison because he broke the law)

98
Q

Level 3 of Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

A

Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning
– Moral judgments based on GENERAL PRINCIPLES; following one’s conscience
– Principles have been internalized & are part of person’s value system
– Stage 5: Social contract orientation
(agreements on general principles that foster overall welfare and individual rights, but also recognition that society can decide to modify laws that lose their utility)
– Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
(heinz should steal the drug, but should not
go to jail)

99
Q

What influences internal regulatory mechanism – (conscience)

A

– Internalizing societal values from parents
– Temperament (fearful inhibited children tend to internalize parental values earlier and easier than less fearful children - gentle discipline)
– Learning
– Attachment
– Emotional regulation

100
Q

Physical Development in Puberty

A

– Hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to increase its hormonal secretions
– Rapid maturation in which person becomes capable of reproduction
– Primary & secondary sex characteristics mature
* Menarche & production of sperm occur

101
Q

Psychological Outcomes of Physical Changes

A

– Effects on mood and behaviour
– Early maturation generally more positive for
boys than for girls
– Timing & perception of whether maturation is early or late is important

102
Q

Brain Growth in adolescence

A

Overall brain growth is slower than childhood
– fMRI techniques -> brain activity is different in children, adolescents, and adults
– Increase in areas important for impulse control and abstract thought
– Maturation of neural networks
– Corpus callosum increases in area by 10%

103
Q

Physical Development in Young Adulthood

A
  • Peak of physical, sexual, and perceptual functioning
  • Maximum muscle strength
    – In the legs, arms, and other parts of the body is reached at age 25 to 30
  • Vision, hearing, reaction time, and coordination
    – Peak levels in the mid-20s
104
Q

Physical Development in Middle and Late Adulthood

A
  • Physical status declines at mid-life
    – Muscles become weaker and stiffer,
    especially among sedentary people
  • Visual acuity – declines with age
  • Basal Metabolic rate - slows after 40
  • Efficiency of oxygen consumption decreases
    – Bones may become brittle – slow to heal
105
Q

Brain changes in middle and late adulthood

A
  • We do lose brain tissue
    – Frontal and Parietal lobes show greatest loss
  • Many changes offset by lifestyle, nutrition, attitude
106
Q

Cognitive Development in Adolescence with brain maturation

A

Brain maturation continues.
* Adolescent Egocentrism – OVERESTIMATION of uniqueness of feelings, experiences
(personal fable)
– OVERSENSITIVITY to social evaluation (imaginary audience)

107
Q

Other factors in Cognitive Development in Adolescence - type of thinking and abilities

A
  • Increase in abstract reasoning abilities
  • More flexible, creative thinking
    – FORMAL OPERATIONAL THOUGHT – They can use deductive reasoning to solve scientific problems systematically

● The advancing is more slowly than childhood.
● However, their memory becomes more efficient and attention span becomes longer.

108
Q

Changes in Cognitive Development in Adulthood - what kind of thinking?

A
  • POST-FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING
    – Allows for new and more complex ways people can reason logically about opposing points of view
    – Accept contradictions and irreconcilable
    differences
109
Q

More Changes in Cognitive Development in Adulthood

A

Changes in INFORMATION PROCESSING and memory – see decline but amount varies
– Reaction time (Perceptual speed)
(starts to increase. Time to respond takes longer)
– Memory for new information
– Spatial memory (where things are)
– Changes to prospective memory – less clear
(having difficulty in remembering what they plan to do in the future)

110
Q

Intellectual Changes in Adulthood

A
  • Crystallized Intelligence
    – Peak in middle adulthood and then decline
  • Fluid Intelligence
    – Begins to decline in early adulthood
  • Cognitive function
    – Remain physically and intellectually active
  • Older but wiser?
    – Studies suggest wisdom increases with age
111
Q

Identity Diffusion

A

No identity crisis yet; uncommitted to a
role
- teens and adults seemed unconcerned about identity issues
- James Marcia

112
Q

Foreclosure

A

Adopting a role or identity without going through identity crisis
- James Marcia

113
Q

Moratorium

A

Current identity crisis; not resolved
- James Marcia

114
Q

Identity Achievement

A

Gone through identity crisis; successfully resolved
- James Marcia

115
Q

Social-Emotional & Personality Development factors in adolescence

A
  • Parental relationships
    – Storm & stress = the rule or exception ?
    – Degree of agreement with parents - depends on issue
    – Conflict generally low
  • Conflict
    – Misconduct
    – Anti-social behaviour
    – Hopelessness
    – Low self-esteem
    Correlation does not equal Causation
116
Q

Transition to Adulthood - Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

A

Age (years) Major Psychological Crisis
20–40 Intimacy vs. isolation (ability to
open ones self to other people)
40–65 Generativity vs. stagnation
(careers, raising children, doing
things for others)
65+ Integrity vs. despair
(review their lives and look at their meanings. Feel resolved there is integrity; despair if they have not lived their lives in a more fulfilling way)

117
Q

Retirement and the “Golden Years”

A

Adjustment depends on many factors
○ Physical health
○ Leisure interests
○ Financial security
○ Family relationships
○ Is retirement voluntary?
People with strong work values miss jobs
most

118
Q

Death

A

– Approach impending death in many ways
– Affected by beliefs and customs
– Elderly most accepting of own impending death

119
Q

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying

A

– Denial
– Anger
– Bargaining
– Depression
– Acceptance

Psych 105 (5 decks)

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