Chapter 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards

Question

What is an algorithm?

Answer 1

An algorithm is a formula procedure for solving a certain type of problem. Algorithms can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce the desired solution.

Answer 2

Trial and error is a type of problem-solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work. This type of problem-solving is usually only affected when there are relatively few possible solutions.

Answer 3

Deductive reasoning starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. An example would be logic puzzles where one has to synthesize a list of logical rules to come up with a single possible solution to the problem.

Answer 4

Inductive reasoning seeks to create a theory via generalizations. This type of reasoning starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them.

Answer 5

Heuristics can lead us as astray, but they are essential in to speedy and effective decision-making.

Answer 6

When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded. This is known as the disconfirmation principle: the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work. Confirmation bias may prevent an individual from eliminating this solution, as confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them. Confirmation bias contributes to overconfidence: tendency to erroneously, interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible. Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened. Belief, perseverance refers to the inability to reject a particular belief, despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Answer 7

Intuition can be defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence. Recognition primed decision model: a variety of intuition that is accurately described by actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern.

Answer 8

Emotion is the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation.

Answer 9

Intelligence is difficult to define, Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligence’s attempts to do so. At least eight to find types of intelligence: Linguistic Logical mathematical Musical Visual spatial Bodily kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

Answer 10

Sternbergs triarchic theory of human intelligence defines three sub types: Analytical intelligence: ability to evaluate and reason Creative intelligence: ability to solve problems using novel methods Practical intelligence: dealing with every day problems at home or at work

Answer 11

The theory of emotional intelligence addresses are emotional awareness, and four components: The ability to express and perceive emotions in ourselves and others The ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions The ability to regulate our emotions Awareness of how emotion shape, our thoughts and decisions

Answer 12

Empathy is often given as an example of emotional intelligence because empathy requires individuals to understand their own emotions well enough to recognize those emotions in other people.

Answer 13

Consciousness is one level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world.

Answer 14

Alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of consciousness.

Answer 15

Alertness is a state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think. We are able to perceive, process, access, and verbalize information. In the alert state, we also experienced a certain level of physiological arousal which is characterized by physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and so on.

Answer 16

Sleep is Study with electroencephalography, EEG, which records an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain. There are four characteristics of EEG patterns correlated with different stages of waking and sleeping: Beta, alpha, Theta, and Delta waves. The fifth wave of the corresponds to REM sleep is the time during the night where we have most of our dreams. Each cycle lasts approximately 90 minutes.

Answer 17

Stage one (nrem1), stage two (nrem2), and stage three (nrem3) are collectively called non-rapid eye movement sleep.

Answer 18

SWS is slow wave sleep (stage three or NREM3 sleep). Characterized by Delta waves: low frequency, high voltage sleep waves.

Answer 19

The sleep cycle refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages. Early in the night, slow wave sleep (SWS) predominates as the brain falls into deep sleep, and then into more wakeful states. Later in the night, REM sleep predominates.

Answer 20

The length of sleep cycle increases from 50 minutes in children and 90 minutes an adults. Changes of sleep cycles from disrupted sleep or disordered work schedules can cause many health problems and including diminished memory, diminished cognitive function, negative effects to mood, problem-solving and motor skills.

Answer 21

Melatonin is an indolic hormone (characterized by an indole nucleus) produced by the pineal gland derived from tryptophan. Melatonin is derived from serotonin (a chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, sleep, digestion, and other bodily functions).

Answer 22

Dyssomnias: difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoid sleep. Include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea. Parasomnias: abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, including night, terrors and sleepwalking. Most sleep disorders occur occur during NREM sleep.

Answer 23

Insomnia is difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. Narcolepsy is a condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep. Cataplexy is a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours. Sleep paralysis is a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake. Hypnagogic and hypnapompic hallucinations or hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening. Sleep apnea, a dissomnia, is an inability to breathe during sleep.

Answer 24

They both occurred during slow wave sleep (SWS) Night terrors, which are most common in children, our periods of intense anxiety that occurred during slow wave sleep. Sleepwalking or somnambulism also occur occurred during slow wave sleep. Some people who sleepwalk may eat, talk, have sexual intercourse, or even drive great distances while sleeping with absolutely no recollection of the event.

Answer 25

Selective attention is focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli.

Answer 26

Phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.

Answer 27

Phonology refers to the actual sound of a language.

Answer 28

Morphology refers to the structure of words.

Answer 29

Semantics referred to the association of meaning with a word.

Answer 30

Syntax refers to how words are put together to form sentences.

Answer 31

Pragmatics refers to the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Prosody is the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.

Answer 32

Noam Chomsky advocated for the existence of some innate capacity for language.

Answer 33

BF Skinner explained language acquisition by operant conditioning. Very young babies are capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages, but by six months of age show a strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents. Skinner explained language acquisition by reinforcement: caregiver’s repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language they speak.

Answer 34

The social interaction is theory of language development focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes.

Answer 35

The linguistic relativity hypothesis suggest that our perception of reality, the way we think about the world, is determined by the content of language. In essence, language affects the way we think rather than the other way around.

Answer 36

These are two different areas of the brain that are responsible for speech, production and language comprehension, both located in the dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left hemisphere. Brocas area located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex. Wernickes area located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal load, is responsible for language comprehension. These two areas are connected by the arcuate fasciculus, a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language, comprehension, and speech production.