CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDIES + EXTRA CONTENT: PEACE AND CONFLICT

Question 1

Religious Perspectives

Answer 1

1. Christianity: Promotes peace through love, forgiveness, and reconciliation,
   drawing from the teachings of Jesus Christ. Peacebuilding is often seen as
   part of a moral and spiritual duty.
2. Islam: Emphasises comprehensive peace — personal, communal, and
   political, grounded in the principles of justice (Adl) and beneficence (Ihsan).
3. Buddhism: Views peace as starting from within each individual, stressing
   mindfulness and compassion. Peace in the Buddhist context transcends mere
   absence of conflict, incorporating the idea of a peaceful mind and peaceful
   society.

Question 2

Feminist Interpretations of Peace

Answer 2

1. Feminism questions the traditional, often patriarchal, views of peace, arguing
   for more inclusive and representative definitions.
2. Peace is not just the absence of war, but also the presence of conditions like
   gender equality, justice, and freedom from oppression.
3. Feminist scholars point out that women and children are disproportionately
   affected by conflict, and their experiences and voices should shape
   peacebuilding.
4. Influence: These perspectives have influenced international policies, including
   UN Security Council Resolution 1325, which addresses the impact of war on
   women and the importance of their participation in peace processes.

Question 3

Greed Driven Conflict

Answer 3

1. A focus on material interests, often involving economic gains, territorial
   control, and resource exploitation.
2. A disregard for ethical or moral constraints, where the pursuit of self-interest
   takes precedence.
3. In such conflicts, parties may engage in actions that prioritize their
   own material well-being, regardless of the broader societal or ethical
   implications.
4. Examples of greed-driven conflicts include territorial disputes,
   resource wars, and economic rivalries.

Question 4

Grievance Driven Conflict

Answer 4

1. The presence of historical, social, political, or economic grievances, which
   often go unresolved over extended periods.
2. A strong sense of injustice, oppression, or discrimination, which fuels the
   conflict and drives individuals or groups to seek redress
3. parties perceive themselves as victims of systemic injustice and may
   mobilize to address these grievances. These conflicts are often
   characterized by social unrest, protests, and resistance movements.

Question 5

Application of Greed and Grievances in Conflict Analysis

Answer 5

1. Conflict dynamics frequently change, with conflicts transitioning from
   greed-driven to grievance-driven, or vice versa. Recognizing these shifts is
   critical in crafting effective conflict resolution strategies.
2. Addressing the root causes of both greed and grievance is fundamental to
   conflict resolution and peacebuilding efforts. These may include economic
   development initiatives, measures to address historical injustices, or
   diplomatic negotiations.

Question 5

Greed and Grievance Conflict: Columbia(FARC)

Answer 5

1. Greed: The FARC’s involvement in the illegal drug trade illustrates a stark
   manifestation of the greed-driven aspect of the conflict. By controlling drug
   production and distribution networks, the FARC secures a substantial source
   of revenue and power. This financial gain sustains their operations and
   contributes to their influence.
2. Grievance: Grievances related to land reform, social injustice, and
   government oppression have driven communities to support the FARC and
   other rebel groups. These grievances are fueled by historical injustices,
   creating a fertile ground for opposition and resistance

Question 6

Role of Education and Culture in Positive Peace

Answer 6

1. Education for Peace: Education systems that promote understanding,
   tolerance, and critical thinking are crucial in cultivating peace.
2. Cultural Diversity and Respect: Respect for diversity and multiculturalism can
   decrease tension and foster social harmony.

Question 6

Key Elements of Positive Peace

Answer 6

1. Economic and social justice: addressing inequality, social welfare
2. Political Inclusion and participation: democratic governance, participation and
   accountability
3. Sustainable development and environmental care: resource
   management(Equitable) and climate action

Question 7

Common Challenges in Achieving Positive Peace

Answer 7

1. Structural challenges: ingrained injustices(Take time to address), systemic
   changes(also, take time, and may be impossible to address)
2. Measurement and evaluation: assessment difficulties(subjective in nature),
   indicators and metrics(are essential, but not perfect)

Question 8

Structural Violence Example: Gender Inequality

Answer 8

1. Context: Globally, women and non-binary individuals often face institutional
   barriers. Talk about Iran or Saudi Arabia.
2. Manifestation: This may be seen in wage gaps, underrepresentation in
   leadership roles, and inadequate legal protections.
3. Outcome: These issues reinforce traditional gender roles and limit overall
   societal progress.

Question 8

The Cycle of Structural Violence

Answer 8

1. Perpetuation in Societies: it becomes normalised, institutionalised, and has a
   lack of visibility
2. Impedes peace: undermines social stability, fosters conflict
3. Sustains conflict: justifies direct violence, leads to a cycle of retaliation

Question 8

Possible Responses to Structural Violence

Answer 8

1. Policy intervention: legal reforms and resources redistribution
2. Societal Changes: building awareness and advocacy and creating cultural
   shifts
3. International Cooperation: aid and development and human rights advocacy

Question 9

Structural Violence Example: Racial Inequality

Answer 9

1. Context: In many countries, racial minorities face systemic barriers in various
   aspects of life. USA in particular.
2. Manifestation: These barriers manifest in forms like higher unemployment
   rates, poor healthcare outcomes, and disproportionate incarceration rates
   among racial minorities.
3. Outcome: Such systemic disadvantages perpetuate cycles of poverty and
   marginalisation.

Question 10

Sociological Theories of Structural Violence

Answer 10

1. Conflict Theory: Views social structures as inherently unequal, based on
   power dynamics that favour dominant groups.
2. Symbolic Interactionism: Examines how social norms and values sustain
   structural inequalities.

Question 10

Territorial Conflict: Russian Annexation of Crimea

Answer 10

1. Russia annexed Crimea in March 2014, following the Ukrainian Revolution.
2. Motivations: Strategic: Control over the Black Sea and its naval fleet stationed
   at Sevastopol. Cultural-Historical: Crimea’s long association with Russia,
   being part of Russia until 1954. Political: Demonstrating Russia’s regional
   dominance and countering Western influence in Ukraine.
3. Global Implications: Western Sanctions: Led to significant economic sanctions
   from the EU, USA, and others. Security Tensions: Increased NATO presence
   in Eastern Europe and a rekindling of Cold War-type rhetorics.

Question 11

Psychology Theories of Structural Violence

Answer 11

1. Cognitive Biases: Explores how societal biases and stereotypes contribute to
   institutionalised discrimination.
2. Mental Health Impact: Studies the psychological effect of living in a society
   marked by structural violence

Question 12

Territorial Conflict: Russia Ukraine War

Answer 12

1. Dynamics: Support for pro-Russian separatists in the Donbas region.
2. Motivations: Buffer against NATO, protecting Russian-speaking minorities,
   historical ties.
3. Impact: Ongoing conflict causing thousands of deaths, massive displacement,
   and heightened global tensions.

Question 13

Territorial Conflict: South China Sea Dispute

Answer 13

1. Geographic and economic significance: Strategic Location: Crucial for
   international maritime trade, linking the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Resource
   Rich: Hosts vast fisheries and is believed to hold substantial oil and gas
   reserves
2. Claimants: Major Claimants: Include China, the Philippines, Vietnam,
   Malaysia, Brunei, and Taiwan. China’s Nine-Dash Line: Asserts historical
   rights over most of the sea, conflicting with other nations’ claims and violating
   UNCLOS principles.
3. Recent developments and tensions: Chinese Activities: Construction of
   artificial islands, installation of military bases. International Response: Legal
   challenges, particularly by the Philippines; U.S. naval patrols; regional
   diplomatic efforts.
4. Global Implications: Potential for Conflict: Actions by China seen as
   militarisation, raising fears of direct confrontations.International Law and
   Maritime Security: Challenges to the freedom of navigation and overflight
   rights; undermining the UNCLOS framework. Wider Geostrategic Implications:
   Becomes a stage for U.S.-China rivalry; impacts ASEAN unity and regional
   order.

Question 14

General Motivations Behind Territorial Conflicts

Answer 14

1. Historical and cultural claims Deep-rooted Histories: Often involve
   centuries-old borders and cultural links to the land. National Identity:
   Territories can be symbolic of national pride and heritage.
2. Strategic importance: Military Advantages: Control over territories can offer
   significant military or geostrategic advantages. Economic Resources:
   Territories rich in resources like minerals, oil, or natural gas are particularly
   contested.
3. Nationalism and Political Strategy: Domestic Politics: Leaders might stoke
   nationalist sentiments or use territorial claims to divert attention from internal
   issues. Electoral Incentives: Territorial claims can be used to rally public
   support during political or economic crises.
4. Economic Resources: Direct Access: Control over territories ensures direct
   access to their natural resources. Trade Routes: Significant for controlling
   major maritime trade paths and chokepoints.

Question 15

Economic Interests in Conflict:

Answer 15

1. Economic interests drive conflict when parties compete for resources,
   market dominance, and economic control. Such disputes can occur
   over a variety of issues including but not limited to resources, trade
   policies, and foreign investments.
2. Resource Allocation: Nations or corporations may conflict over access to natural
   resources like oil, minerals, or water. The desire to control these resources can lead
   to both local and international disputes.
3. Trade Disputes: Issues arise from practices like protectionism, imposing tariffs, and
   creating trade barriers. Such disputes can escalate to trade wars affecting global
   markets.
4. Foreign Investment Conflicts: Occur when there’s a clash over foreign direct
   investments, often influenced by concerns over national security or economic
   dependence.

Question 15

Global Implications of Territorial Conflicts:

Answer 15

1. International relations: diplomatic strains, global power dynamic shifts
2. Security and Regional Stability: refugee flows and humanitarian crises, arms races
3. International law and governance: challenges rule of law, requires UN and IGOs
4. Economic effects: trade disruptions, investment and development

Question 16

Economic Interests in Conflict: weapon sales, global arms trade

Answer 16

1. Global Arms trade: Driven by profit, strategic influence, or geopolitical alliances
   this activity may lead to regional arms races, heightened tensions, and
   conflicts.
2. Controversies and consequences: US companies selling weapons to
   Myanmar, sales to place with poor human rights records. There is an ethical
   and political debate about if the profit, is worth the risks.

Question 17

Political Interests in conflict

Answer 17

1. Political conflicts stem from struggles over governance, power,
   territorial control, and political ideologies.
2. Election Disputes: Such as conflicts following allegations of election
   fraud, voter suppression, or manipulation.
3. Governance Conflicts: Disagreements over control of government
   institutions, policy direction, or corruption.
4. E.g. Territorial disputes(overlap with territoral conflict) e.g. south
   china sea

Question 18

Social Interests in conflict

Answer 18

1. Social conflicts arise around the aspirations, needs, and identities of
   social groups. These often involve issues of rights, representation,
   and social justice.
2. Labour Disputes: Including conflicts over wages, working conditions,
   and employees’ rights.
3. Group Rights: Conflicts where ethnic, religious, or other social groups
   seek recognition, rights, and autonomy.

Question 19

Social Interests in conflict: workplace disputes

Answer 19

1. Causes: Often related to unfair labour practices, pay discrepancies, and lack
   of workers’ representation.
2. Resolution: Can involve negotiations, legal action, strikes, or even
   international advocacy
3. Example: Movements like the Fight for $15 campaign can influence broader
   social policies and international labour standards.

Question 20

Crosscutting themes in interest based conflicts

Answer 20

1. Conflicts rarely exist in isolation and often intertwine economic, political, and
   social factors.
2. The arms trade, for instance, impacts political alliances and can ignite social
   unrest.
3. Global interconnectedness means local conflicts can have worldwide
   implications, especially in economically linked issues.
4. Economic conflicts can disrupt global supply chains, influencing international
   economic stability and relations.

Question 21

Managing and Resolving interest based conflict

Answer 21

1. Role of IGOs and agreements: Organisations such as the WTO, IMF, and
   World Bank help manage and mitigate economic conflicts through policy
   frameworks and interventions. International treaties and agreements address
   conflicts over global issues like environmental conservation, climate change,
   and resource management.
2. Diplomacy and negotiation: Diplomacy is a crucial tool in resolving political
   and social conflicts, often through bilateral or multilateral discussions.
   International mediation and dialogue, facilitated by organisations like the UN,
   play a significant role in peaceful conflict resolution.
3. Influence of Non state actors: Non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
   multinational corporations (MNCs), and other non-state actors increasingly
   impact interest-based conflicts by offering unique resources, perspectives,
   and solutions.

Question 22

Ideological conflict:

Answer 22

1. Ideological Conflict: Involves disputes originating from opposing sets of
   beliefs, values, or ideologies.
2. Characteristics: Deep-rooted, extensive, and often emotional; difficult to
   resolve due to their entwinement with personal and collective identities
3. E.g Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Represents a blend of territorial, religious, and
   cultural ideological clashes.

Question 23

Political Ideologies in conflict:

Answer 23

1. Political Ideology: A system of beliefs outlining how a society should operate,
   influencing governance, policy, and social structure.
2. Arab Spring (2010-Present): Triggered by demands for democratic reforms,
   impacting several Arab countries with varying outcomes, from regime
   changes to civil wars

Question 24

Economic ideologies in conflict:

Answer 24

1. Economic Ideology: Shapes views on economic policy and management,
   including capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies.
2. Globalisation vs Economic Nationalism: Involves debates between advocates
   of global free trade and supporters of protective tariffs and national industries.
3. Capitalism vs Socialism: Central to political discourse, affecting debates on
   social welfare, public services, and wealth redistribution.

Question 25

Religious Ideologies in conflict:

Answer 25

1. Religious Ideologies: The belief systems of different religions can significantly
   influence social norms, laws, and international politics.
2. Sunni vs Shia: Predominantly seen in Middle Eastern geopolitical dynamics,
   influencing regional politics, alliances, and conflicts.

Question 26

Cultural Ideologies in Conflict

Answer 26

1. Cultural Ideology: Involves the collective beliefs and values expressed
   through cultural practices, affecting societal behavior and policies.
2. Western vs Non-Western Ideologies: Differences in perceptions of democracy,
   human rights, and secularism.
3. Traditional vs Modern Values: Tensions arise over evolving societal norms,
   including gender roles and sexual orientation rights.

Question 27

The Israeli Palestinian Conflict: Ideological factors in conflict

Answer 27

1. A complex conflict influenced by a mix of historical claims, territorial disputes,
   and religious and cultural differences.
2. Jewish historical and biblical connections to the land.
3. Palestinian aspirations for nationhood and resistance to perceived occupation.
4. Religious significance to Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

Question 28

The rise of populism in western societies

Answer 28

1. Characterised by a shift towards right-wing ideologies, challenging
   established liberal and globalist perspectives.
2. Influenced by: Economic dissatisfaction, particularly post-2008 financial crisis.
   Identity politics, centring on national identity and immigration. Scepticism
   towards the perceived failures of globalisation and multilateral institutions

Question 29

Impacts of Ideological Conflict

Answer 29

1. On domestic policies: Directly influences a country’s internal policies,
   especially in areas of civil rights, national security, and education, where
   ideological divisions are pronounced.
2. On International relations: Ideological differences often dictate foreign policy,
   influencing diplomatic relations, trade, and global strategic alliances. Can be a
   primary factor in conflicts, contributing to international unrest and military
   engagements.
3. On society: Contributes to societal polarisation, potentially leading to protest
   movements or internal conflict. Shapes national narratives, public opinion, and
   even educational curricula, affecting how history and current events are
   perceived and taught.

Question 30

Identity Based Conflict

Answer 30

1. Identity conflicts often arise from complex historical, social, and
   political contexts, where perceived threats to a group’s existence or
   values are paramount.
2. Historical Roots: These conflicts frequently have deep historical origins,
   including colonial legacies, historical injustices, and long-standing ethnic or
   religious rivalries.
3. Social and Cultural Factors: Differences in language, religion, and cultural
   practices can be significant conflict sources, especially where policies or
   social changes appear to challenge or undermine these identity markers.
4. Political and Economic Inequalities: Such disputes can also stem from
   situations where particular identity groups feel excluded from political
   decision-making or economic benefits.

Question 31

Indigenous populations and conflict

Answer 31

1. Land rights and territorial disputes: Historical Context: Indigenous populations
   have frequently faced dispossession and marginalisation from ancestral
   lands, which continue to affect relations with state authorities and private
   entities. Contemporary Issues: Modern-day conflicts often arise due to
   governmental or corporate encroachments for resource extraction or
   development, infringing on indigenous land rights and livelihoods.
2. Cultural Rights and preservation: Language and Education: Struggles around
   preserving indigenous languages and accessing culturally relevant education
   are a frequent flashpoint. Cultural Practices: Governmental or societal
   restrictions on traditional practices lead to tensions, emphasizing the need for
   cultural sensitivity and the right to cultural expression.
3. Political Representation and autonomy: Self-Determination: The pursuit of
   political representation and self-governance is a key element in many
   indigenous identity conflicts. Legal and Policy Frameworks: Global
   frameworks like the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
   Peoples (UNDRIP) provide benchmarks for these rights, influencing national
   policies and identity-based disputes.

Question 32

Complex Dynamics in ethnically diverse states

Answer 32

1. Managing diversity: Policies and Integration: How a state manages ethnic
   diversity (through policies like multiculturalism, assimilation, or segregation)
   profoundly affects social harmony and potential conflicts. Socio-Economic
   Integration: Disparities in employment, education, and wealth distribution
   among various ethnic groups can exacerbate tensions and lead to conflict.
2. National Identity and inclusion: Constructing a National Identity: Debates
   around the definition of national identity can either foster a sense of belonging
   or alienate minority groups. Citizenship Laws and Rights: The framing of
   citizenship and rights can be pivotal in either unifying a nation or deepening
   divisions based on identity.
3. Conflict and violence: Communal Violence: When ethnic, religious, or cultural
   competition for resources, political influence, or cultural dominance escalates,
   it can lead to communal violence and widespread disturbances. Role of
   Institutions: The effectiveness of state institutions in managing diversity and
   addressing grievances influences whether these conflicts are mitigated or
   intensified.

Question 33

Identity Based Conflict: The Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar

Answer 33

1. Ethnic and Religious Dimensions: The predominantly Muslim Rohingya,
   residing in a majority Buddhist country, have faced intense persecution and
   discrimination, culminating in accusations of ethnic cleansing and genocide.
2. Statelessness and Rights: Myanmar’s denial of citizenship rights to the
   Rohingya illustrates how governmental policies can amplify identity conflicts,
   leading to international humanitarian crises

Question 34

Identity Based Conflict: Kurdish people

Answer 34

1. Cross-Border Ethnicity: The Kurdish population, spread across Turkey, Iraq,
   Syria, and Iran, has persistently sought greater autonomy and recognition,
   often clashing with central governments.
2. Impact on Regional Politics: The Kurdish struggle intersects with broader
   regional dynamics, including territorial integrity issues, national security
   concerns, and international diplomacy.

Question 35

Identity Based Conflict: The Catalan Independence Movement in Spain

Answer 35

1. Cultural and Linguistic Identity: The distinct cultural and linguistic identity of
   Catalans has fuelled desires for independence or greater autonomy from
   Spain, leading to significant political and social strife.
2. Political Responses: The Spanish government’s response, including legal and
   police action against independence proponents, exemplifies the challenges in
   resolving identity conflicts within democratic, integrated states.

Question 36

Just war Theory: Contemporary
Philosophical Perspectives

Answer 36

1. Relevance in Asymmetric Warfare: Traditional Just War Theory doesn’t fully
   address conflicts involving non-state actors like terrorist groups.
2. Technological Advancements: Drones and cyber warfare introduce new
   challenges in ensuring discrimination and proportionality.
3. Cultural Bias: Critics argue that Just War Theory might reflect a Western
   ethical bias, not universally applicable or accepted.

Question 36

Critiques and Challenges of Just War Theory

Answer 36

1. Relevance in Asymmetric Warfare: Traditional Just War Theory doesn’t fully
   address conflicts involving non-state actors like terrorist groups.
2. Technological Advancements: Drones and cyber warfare introduce new
   challenges in ensuring discrimination and proportionality.
3. Cultural Bias: Critics argue that Just War Theory might reflect a Western
   ethical bias, not universally applicable or accepted.

Question 37

Humanitarian Intervention

Answer 37

1. Humanitarian intervention is generally characterised as the
   employment of military force by one or several nations to prevent or
   cease gross human rights violations in another nation.
2. Criteria for Intervention: For an intervention to be considered ‘humanitarian’,
   its primary goal should be civilian protection. Often, non-military actions such
   as sanctions or diplomatic efforts are initially undertaken.
3. Consent and Legitimacy: The legitimacy of an intervention often hinges on
   whether it has the backing of the international community, usually through the
   United Nations (UN), or a significant number of countries.

Question 38

Justifications for Humanitarian intervention

Answer 38

1. Responsibility to Protect (R2P): Emerged from the 2005 UN World Summit,
   where world leaders agreed to the principle that when national governments
   fail to safeguard their citizens from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, or
   crimes against humanity, the international community has a responsibility to
   protect.
2. Preventing Genocide and Mass Atrocities: The ethical argument often hinges
   on the necessity to prevent mass atrocities. Historical instances like the
   Rwandan Genocide have been cited as examples where intervention might
   have prevented mass slaughter.

Question 39

Criticisms and controversies of humanitarian intervention

Answer 39

1. Violation of Sovereignty: Critics argue that humanitarian interventions are
   often a violation of the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference,
   essential pillars of the international system.
2. Hidden Agendas: There is concern that states might use humanitarian
   justifications to pursue broader geopolitical or economic interests.
3. Unintended Consequences: Even well-intentioned interventions can lead to
   long-lasting conflicts, instability, and sometimes worsen the humanitarian
   situation they intended to ameliorate.

Question 40

Libya(2011) Responsibility to Protect

Answer 40

1. The intervention in Libya, authorised by the UN Security Council, was
   initially hailed as a successful application of the R2P principle.
   However, the subsequent collapse of Libya into chaos and civil war
   raised questions about the long-term planning and objectives of
   humanitarian interventions.

Question 41

Evaluating Outcomes of Humanitarian Intervention

Answer 41

1. Success Metrics: The effectiveness of humanitarian interventions is not only
   in stopping immediate violence but also in ensuring long-term stability,
   rebuilding efforts, and preventing future conflicts.
2. Impact Assessment: The long-term social, political, and economic impacts in
   the intervened regions are critical for a comprehensive evaluation.

Question 42

The role of IGOs in evaluating outcomes of humanitarian intervention

Answer 42

1. United Nations: The UN’s role in authorising, condemning, or questioning
   interventions is crucial in determining their legitimacy and effectiveness.
2. Regional Organisations: Bodies like NATO, the African Union, and the
   European Union influence humanitarian interventions through their support,
   advocacy, and operational roles.

Question 43

Future Directions of Humanitarian intervention

Answer 43

1. Normative Shifts: The global consensus on humanitarian intervention and the
   balance between human rights and sovereignty continues to evolve,
   particularly as new international crises emerge.
2. Technological Advancements: Modern warfare technology, including cyber
   capabilities and unmanned systems, is changing the nature of interventions
   and posing new ethical and tactical questions

Question 44

Culturally Condoned Violence

Answer 44

1. Culturally Condoned Violence: Acts of violence endorsed or accepted by a
   society due to deep-rooted cultural, religious, or traditional beliefs.
2. Common Examples: These include honour killings, female genital mutilation
   (FGM), forced marriages, witch hunts, and certain forms of religious or tribal
   warfare

Question 45

Cultural and Religious Justifications

Answer 45

1. Tradition and Honour: Many societies view family honour as paramount,
   sometimes leading to honour killings to redeem perceived loss of honour due
   to actions like adultery, refusal of an arranged marriage, or even victimhood of
   sexual assault.
2. Religious Doctrine: Certain groups use religious texts to justify violence, often
   picking historical or contextual interpretations that support their stance.
3. Social Control: Methods of maintaining societal control or enforcing social
   norms, particularly against subjugated groups such as women, LGBTQ+
   individuals, and religious or ethnic minorities, can also involve violence.

Question 46

International Response and Critiques

Answer 46

1. Human Rights Perspective: International Human Rights Norms: Many
   practices of culturally condoned violence breach international human rights
   standards as per declarations like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
   Global Campaigns and Treaties: Various international treaties and campaigns
   by organisations such as the United Nations, WHO, and Amnesty
   International aim to combat these practices.
2. Challenges in addressing cultural condoned violence: Cultural Relativism:
   This philosophy argues that one cannot judge the cultural practices of another
   group by one’s own cultural standards, posing significant challenges in
   addressing these issues on a global scale.Sovereignty and Non-Intervention:
   Balancing respect for national sovereignty with the need to prevent grave
   human rights abuses remains a significant international relations challenge.
3. International actions and policies: Diplomatic Measures: Governments and
   international organisations often use diplomatic channels to exert pressure for
   change, though this can be delicate and controversial. Conditional Aid:
   Western countries and international organisations sometimes link financial aid
   to human rights improvements, including the cessation of certain violent
   cultural practices.

Question 47

Positions-Interests-Needs Framework

Answer 47

1. The Positions-Interests-Needs framework is another valuable tool for
   analyzing conflicts. It focuses on the motivations and underlying
   factors that drive conflicting parties.
2. Positions: Positions are the explicit demands, claims, or stances taken
   by the parties involved. In this section, we will explore the concept of
   positions in conflicts and how they impact the dynamics and potential
   resolutions. Positions are often characterized by their inflexibility.
   Parties may hold steadfast to their positions, making negotiations and
   compromise challenging. The rigidity of positions can lead to
   prolonged conflicts, as parties are unwilling to make concessions.
   Positions are typically accompanied by stated demands, which
   outline what each party wants to achieve. These demands are often
   the starting point for negotiations. Understanding the underlying
   motivations behind these demands is crucial for conflict resolution.
3. Interests: Interests delve deeper into the motivations behind
   positions. This section will explore the concept of interests and how
   they provide a more comprehensive understanding of the parties’
   motivations in conflicts. Compared to positions, interests are more
   flexible and amenable to negotiation. Parties may be willing to adjust
   their interests to reach a mutually acceptable solution. Recognizing
   shared interests can be a foundation for conflict resolution. Identifying
   common interests between conflicting parties is a crucial step in
   conflict resolution. When parties discover shared interests, it creates
   opportunities for collaboration and compromise. For example, in a
   labor-management conflict, both sides may have an interest in a
   productive and stable workplace.
4. Needs: Needs are the fundamental, underlying concerns that drive
   both positions and interests. In this section, we will explore the
   concept of needs and their significance in understanding conflicts.
   Needs often relate to basic human needs, such as safety, dignity, or
   justice. Recognizing and addressing these fundamental needs is vital
   for conflict resolution. Failure to address these needs can lead to
   ongoing resentment and unrest. In conflict resolution, addressing
   unmet needs is a key strategy for achieving a lasting solution. Parties
   may be more willing to compromise and cooperate when their core
   needs are acknowledged and addressed. Resolving underlying
   needs can lead to sustainable peace. The Positions-Interests-Needs
   framework encourages parties to look beyond their stated positions
   and focus on their underlying interests and needs. By doing so, it
   opens avenues for creative and mutually beneficial solutions, leading
   to more sustainable conflict resolution.

Question 48

Israeli-Palestinian Conflict,
Positions-Interests-Needs Framework

Answer 48

1. Positions: Israel’s position includes demands for security and international
   recognition. On the other hand, Palestinians demand statehood, sovereignty,
   and the right of return for refugees. These positions have historically been
   rigid, contributing to the protracted nature of the conflict.
2. Interests: Both parties have interests in peace, stability, and economic
   prosperity. Additionally, they share an interest in addressing the well-being
   and security of their populations. Recognizing these common interests is
   crucial for the conflict’s resolution.
3. Needs: The underlying needs in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict relate to
   fundamental human needs, including safety, dignity, self-determination, and
   justice. Unaddressed needs have fueled ongoing tensions and violence in the
   region.

Question 49

Kashmir Conflict: Territorial Control and Material Interest

Answer 49

1. Territorial Control: Kashmir is a region in South Asia, primarily divided
   between India, Pakistan, and China. The dispute revolves around the
   control of this strategically located region.
2. Material Interest: The control of Kashmir offers strategic advantages,
   access to important water resources, and regional influence. Both
   India and Pakistan have strategic and material interests in
   maintaining control over parts of Kashmir.

Question 50

The Shifting Landscape of Territorial and
Material Interests:

Answer 50

1. Resource scarcity, driven by factors such as climate change and
   population growth, is an emerging trend that is expected to impact
   territorial control and material interests. E.g. water scarcity and new
   arctic resources
2. Cyberwarfare: The digital realm introduces a new dimension to
   territorial control and material interests, as conflicts can emerge from
   attempts to control the digital domain. E.g. digital territorial control,

Question 51

Resource Scarcity: A Catalyst for Conflict

Answer 51

1. Types of Resources: Resource scarcity can pertain to various
   essential resources, including water, arable land, minerals, energy
   sources, and more. In regions heavily dependent on a specific
   resource, scarcity of that resource can trigger conflicts.
2. Case Study: Water Conflict in the Middle East: The competition for
   limited freshwater resources in the Middle East, particularly along the
   Tigris-Euphrates river system, has been a long-standing source of
   tension between nations in the region. The struggle for water rights
   has created a backdrop for regional instability and conflicts.
3. Economic Implications: Resource scarcity can disrupt economies,
   leading to socio-economic instability and creating fertile ground for
   conflicts. This is especially pertinent in regions where industries are
   heavily reliant on the scarce resource in question.
4. Economic Inequity: Scarce resources often result in economic inequality, as
   those who can control or exploit the resources gain a significant advantage.
   This inequality can breed resentment and conflict, as marginalized groups
   seek to address their grievances.
5. Environmental Degradation: Over-exploitation of scarce resources can lead to
   environmental degradation, compounding the problems by affecting the
   livelihoods of those dependent on these resources. This can trigger disputes
   and conflicts as communities and nations seek to protect their environments.

Question 52

The Intersection of Resource Scarcity and
Ideology

Answer 52

1. Resource Scarcity Amplifying Ideological Differences: When resources
   become scarcer due to factors like climate change, mismanagement, or
   population growth, it can intensify ideological divides. Nations or groups may
   resort to extreme measures to secure these dwindling resources, further
   exacerbating tensions.
2. Case Study: Darfur Conflict: In Darfur, Sudan, resource scarcity, particularly
   water and arable land, aggravated ethnic and political tensions. This complex
   web of issues eventually led to one of the most significant conflicts in recent
   history. This case underscores the destructive potential of the intersection
   between resource scarcity and ideology.
3. Ideological Justification for Resource Acquisition: Ideology can be used to
   justify resource acquisition and expansionist policies. Nations may frame their
   actions as necessary for the survival and prosperity of their ideology, leading
   to territorial disputes and even armed conflicts

Question 53

Perceived Threats of Conflict

Answer 53

1. Perceived threats to identity can manifest in various forms, and their
   impact on conflicts should not be underestimated.
2. Cultural Threats: These involve attempts to suppress or replace a
   specific culture, language, or heritage. For example, the suppression
   of Tibetan culture by the Chinese government has sparked
   international tension.
3. Religious Threats: Conflicts often emerge when religious practices or
   beliefs are threatened. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is influenced by
   religious elements, as both parties consider the Holy Land integral to
   their faiths.
4. Ethnic and National Threats: Disputes related to ethnicity and
   nationality can escalate when individuals or groups perceive that their
   ethnic or national identities are under threat. The Kurdish conflict, for
   instance, is rooted in the desire for autonomy and the preservation of
   Kurdish identity.

Question 54

Skewed Perceptions

Answer 54

1. Cognitive Biases: confirmation bias and group think
2. Perceptions of threat: miscommunication, perception of military
   build-up(creates arms race)

Question 55

Interaction Between Identity and Perception

Answer 55

1. Reinforcement: Threatened identity and skewed perceptions often
   reinforce each other. When identity is perceived to be at risk,
   cognitive biases can intensify, causing individuals or groups to
   interpret actions and intentions more negatively than they might in
   other circumstances. This cycle of reinforcement can significantly
   escalate conflicts.
2. Escalation: The combination of threatened identity and skewed
   perceptions can escalate conflicts beyond resolution. Parties become
   entrenched in their positions, and diplomatic solutions become
   increasingly challenging. Escalation is particularly likely when identity
   is deeply rooted in cultural, religious, or ethnic factors.

Question 56

Primary Party: State Actor

Answer 56

1. Motivations: national security, territorial integrity, resources acquisition
2. Methods of engagement: diplomatic agreement, military action

Question 57

Primary party: Non-state actors

Answer 57

1. Motiviations, Political, economic and social change and self determination
2. Methods of engagement: Insurgency and guerilla warfare and terrorism
3. A notable example is Farc

Question 57

Secondary Party: International Organizations

Answer 57

1. Motivations: Peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, conflict resolution
2. Methods of engagement: diplomacy and peacekeeping forces

Question 58

Non Violent Conflict: Demonstrations

Answer 58

1. Public displays of group sentiment, usually in opposition to a specific idea,
   policy, or regime.
2. Forms: Marches and Rallies: Organised walks or gatherings to demonstrate
   solidarity and support for a cause. Sit-ins and Picketing: Non-violent
   occupation of a space or forming lines to display protest.
3. Effectiveness: Publicity and Media Coverage: Demonstrations often attract
   considerable media attention, amplifying the protesters’ message. Pressure
   on Authorities: Large-scale participation can pressurise governments and
   institutions to address the demands or grievances raised.

Question 59

Non-Violent Conflict: Civil Disobedience

Answer 59

1. Civil disobedience involves the intentional and non-violent refusal to comply
   with certain laws, demands, or orders from a government or occupying power.
2. Characteristics: Non-violent Nature: Emphasis on avoiding physical harm to
   others. Conscientious and Deliberate: Based on moral objections to particular
   legal provisions or government actions. Public: Unlike covert resistance, civil
   disobedience is performed openly, often attracting media coverage and public
   attention.
3. Key Theororists: Henry David Thoreau: His essay “Civil Disobedience” (1849)
   argues that individuals should not permit governments to overrule their
   consciences.
4. Martin Luther King Jr.: Influenced by Gandhi, King advocated for non-violent
   civil disobedience as an instrument of social change.

Question 60

Secondary Party: Transnational Corporations

Answer 60

1. Motivations: Resources acquisition and profit 2
2. Methods of engagement: Lobbying, economic influence, resource acquisition
3. The involvement of Shell, a major oil corporation, in the Niger Delta conflict
   highlights how economic interests of TNCs intersect with conflicts over
   resources.

Question 61

Role of Demonstrations and Civil Disobedience in Political and Social CHange

Answer 61

1. Public Awareness and Opinion: Illuminate issues and sway public sentiment.
2. Mobilisation: Galvanise support across different sections of society, creating a
   collective force.
3. Policy Impact: Can lead to significant policy shifts or the enactment of new
   legislation.

Question 62

Evaluating Demonstrations and Civil Disobedience

Answer 62

1. Ethics and philosophy: legitimacy of the action, effectiveness
2. Potential for Escelation: risk of radicalisation and state induced-violence

Question 63

Impact of violent protests and guerrilla movements on societies

Answer 63

1. Social Disruption: casualties and human suffering, social divisions
2. Economic consequences: long-term poverty, economic devestation(e.g.
   Infrastructure destroyed in guerrilla movements)

Question 64

Challenges to resolving Violent Protests and Guerrilla movements:

Answer 64

1. Ceasefires and Peace Negotiations: Once violence has become
   entrenched, achieving ceasefires and initiating peace negotiations
   becomes increasingly challenging. Factions on both sides may have
   vested interests in perpetuating the conflict, making compromise
   difficult to reach.
2. Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Rebuilding societies torn apart by
   violent conflict is a Herculean task. Infrastructure must be rebuilt,
   social divisions reconciled, and institutions strengthened.
   International support and aid are often crucial in these efforts

Question 64

Political Consequences of violent protests and guerrilla movements

Answer 64

1. Regime change: toppling governments(e.g. Arab spring), more stable
   transitional governments
2. International effects: Neighboring countries are often effected, many time
   IGOs and NGOs must get involved to facilitate peace. There is often human
   rights abuses within these conflicts that must be addressed internationally

Question 65

Root Causes of Terrorism and Genocide

Answer 65

1. Socioeconomic factors: poverty and inequality and marginalisation
2. Ideological factors: extremist ideologies

Question 66

The role of education in preventing terrorism and genocide

Answer 66

1. Preventive Measures: The critical importance of education in promoting
   human rights, empathy, and historical awareness to prevent future instances
   of terrorism and genocide.
2. Educational Initiatives: Discuss initiatives like peace education, multicultural
   education, and the teaching of critical thinking skills to challenge hatred and
   fanaticism.

Question 66

Types of third party involvement in conflict

Answer 66

1. Diplomatic efforts: negotiations and mediation and good offices(venue or
   services (like messaging between parties) can assist in the logistics of peace
   processes)
2. Economic Measures: sanctions and embargoes, aid and development support
3. Military Involvement: peacekeeping operations, military intervention
4. Legal and political pressures: international court cases, resolutions and
   declarations

Question 67

Challenges in combating terrorism and genocide

Answer 67

1. Legal and Ethical Challenges: Issues related to human rights, state
   sovereignty, and the moral complexities in responding to terrorism and
   genocide.
2. The Future Landscape: How evolving technology, geopolitical shifts, and
   globalisation might shape the nature of terrorism and genocide in the future.

Question 68

Motives for third-party involvement in conflict

Answer 68

1. Strategic interests: Access to resources, geographical strategic positions, or
   maintaining or altering the balance of power. Preventing the spread of conflict
   to areas of strategic importance.
2. Humanitarian Concerns: Alleviating suffering caused by conflicts, especially in
   cases of mass atrocities, famine, or large-scale displacement. Acting on moral
   or ethical obligations as global citizens to prevent or reduce human suffering.
3. International Stability: Upholding international law and defending the
   principles of sovereignty and non-aggression. Preventing the spill-over of
   conflicts into wider regional wars, which can disrupt global stability.
4. Domestic Political Pressures: Political leaders responding to internal public
   opinion, which can be sympathetic to the plight of those affected by conflict
   elsewhere. Political capital gained from successful foreign interventions or
   peace initiatives.

Question 69

Implications of third party involvement in conflict

Answer 69

1. On the conflict: Potentially bringing conflicts to a quicker resolution through
   diplomacy, sanctions, or military might. On the other hand, involvement can
   intensify conflicts, particularly if it’s perceived as biased or if it escalates the
   violence.
2. On the international stage: Shifting power dynamics and alliances, with new
   partnerships formed or existing ones strained based on the stance and
   actions in conflicts. Impacts on the reputation and perceived impartiality of
   international organisations.
3. On domestic politics of involved parties: Influence on the political landscape
   and public opinion within the countries of the third parties. Successes and
   failures in foreign policy can significantly impact domestic political fortunes.
   Economic implications, especially in the case of military interventions, which
   can be costly in terms of resources and human lives.

Question 70

Challenges and criticisms of third pary involvement in conflict

Answer 70

1. Legitimacy and sovereignty: The principle of state sovereignty and
   non-interference is sometimes at odds with interventions, leading to debates
   about the legality and morality of such actions. External interventions are
   often criticised as forms of neo-imperialism, especially when the intervening
   parties have significant power disparities with the conflict state.
2. Effectiveness: There is ongoing debate over the long-term effectiveness and
   sustainability of external interventions in resolving conflicts. Risks of creating
   dependency or not addressing the root causes of conflict, leading to cycles of
   violence.
3. Selectivity and Bias: Inconsistent application of intervention, often influenced
   by strategic interests rather than humanitarian need. Some conflicts receive
   significant attention and resources, while others are largely ignored.
   Accusations of bias in international bodies, where decisions may be
   disproportionately influenced by powerful member states.

Question 71

Examples of third party involvement

Answer 71

1. United Nations in Syria during Arab Spring
2. African union in Somalia

Question 72

Peacemaking: Negotiations

Answer 72

1. Definition: Negotiations in international relations refer to the process where
   conflicting parties engage in dialogue to resolve disputes and achieve a
   sustainable peace agreement.
2. Components: Successful negotiations often involve pre-negotiation
   preparation, defining objectives, identifying negotiable issues, and
   understanding the interests of the opposing party.

Question 73

Challenges in negotiations:

Answer 73

1. Asymmetry of Power: Power imbalances can impact the fairness of the
   negotiation outcome.
2. Cultural Differences: Differing cultural backgrounds can lead to
   misunderstandings and misinterpretations.
3. Lack of Trust: Without trust, negotiations may not progress or yield
   sustainable outcomes.

Question 74

Peacemaking: Treaties(definition, components, role in conflict resolution)

Answer 74

1. Definition: Treaties are formal, written agreements between states or
   international actors, legally binding under international law.
2. Components: Typically include the preamble, articles detailing the
   agreement’s terms, and provisions for entry into force and amendments.
3. Long-term Stability: Treaties aim to provide lasting solutions to conflicts by
   addressing the root causes and establishing frameworks for future relations.
4. Legal Binding Nature: The legal obligations imposed by treaties create a
   formal structure to ensure compliance by the parties involved.

Question 75

Peacekeeping Forces

Answer 75

1. Definition: Peacekeeping forces are deployed by international organisations,
   such as the United Nations, to help maintain peace and security in
   post-conflict areas.
2. Activities: These include monitoring ceasefires, protecting civilians, disarming
   ex-combatants, and supporting the organisation of elections
3. Successes: Effective Monitoring and Stabilisation: They have been successful
   in various global locations in maintaining peace and preventing conflicts from
   re-escalating.
4. Challenges: Issues include limited rules of engagement, logistical constraints,
   and sometimes, inadequate support from the international community.
5. E.g. operations in Darfur, Sudan

Question 76

Post Conflict Reconstruction

Answer 76

1. Economic reconstruction: restoration of infrastructure(e.g. roads), revival of
   livelihoods(e.g. employment)
2. Social reconstruction: rebuilding communities(including healthcare and
   education), Supporting Internally displaced people and refugees
3. Political Reconstruction: re-establishing governance and rule of law, creating
   electoral reform

Question 77

Challenges in Peacebuilding and
Reconciliation

Answer 77

1. Resource constraints: consistent funding and capacity building
2. Political and social constraints: legacy of mistrust, maintaining political
   will(remember, social contract(sort of))
3. International Involvement: empowering local leaders is important for
   sustainable change, coherence of international support is also a priority

Question 78

Peace in Rwanda post genocide

Answer 78

1. Background: Post-genocide, Rwanda faced enormous reconstruction
   challenges.
2. Strategies Used: Initiatives included the Gacaca courts, community-building
   programmes, and economic reforms.
3. Outcomes: Significant progress in terms of political stability and economic
   growth, though challenges like political freedom and ethnic reconciliation
   remain.