CHAPTER 2 CASE STUDIES + EXTRA CONTENT: HUMAN RIGHTS

Question 1

UDHR impact on international law

Answer 1

1. Basis for Treaties: The UDHR inspired binding covenants such as the ICCPR
   and ICESCR, which further elaborate and enforce the rights proclaimed in the
   Declaration.
2. Catalyst for Regional Instruments: The principles of the UDHR inspired
   regional human rights conventions in Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
3. Informing Jurisprudence: Courts like the International Court of Justice and
   regional human rights courts often reference the UDHR in their decisions.
4. Influence on Customary Law: Several principles of the UDHR are now
   considered customary international law due to their wide acceptance and
   practice by states.

Question 2

UDHR Role in Shaping Subsequent Human
Rights Instruments and Conventions

Answer 2

1. Framework for Other Instruments: It provided the foundational framework for
   conventions like CEDAW, CRC, and the Convention against Torture (CAT),
   among others.
2. Promotion of Specific Rights: By establishing universal rights, it paved the
   way for focused instruments targeting specific groups (e.g., women, children,
   indigenous populations).
3. Evolution of Rights: The UDHR’s fluid interpretation allowed for the evolution
   of rights, leading to discussions on third-generation rights like development,
   environment, and digital rights.

Question 3

Milestones in Women’s Rights Rights

Answer 3

1. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
   (CEDAW, 1979): A landmark treaty that signifies global commitment to
   dismantle barriers of gender discrimination. Encompasses a range of rights,
   from political participation to health and education.
2. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995): Adopted by the Fourth
   World Conference on Women, it maps out a strategic route for global gender
   equality. Encourages the international community to address systemic
   barriers, such as violence against women and inadequate healthcare
   provisions.

Question 4

Milestones in Children’s Rights

Answer 4

1. Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959): Emphasizes that children, by
   virtue of their physical and mental immaturity, need special safeguards and
   care. Outlines ten principles ranging from protection against neglect to the
   right to education.
2. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989): Comprehensive in nature,
   the CRC addresses the needs and rights of children from various angles,
   including protection from exploitation and access to healthcare. Encourages
   nations to adopt legal measures for the betterment of children’s lives

Question 5

Milestones in Indigenous People’s Rights

Answer 5

1. ILO Convention No. 169 (1989): This convention recognises the aspirations of
   indigenous and tribal peoples and aims to ensure their rights concerning
   cultures, traditions, and institutions. Promotes consultation and participation
   mechanisms for these communities in decisions affecting them.
2. UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007): Emphasizes the
   rights of indigenous peoples to maintain their unique traditions, customs, and
   land relations. Addresses collective rights, which often aren’t included in other
   human rights instruments.

Question 6

Milestones in Refugees rights

Answer 6

1. 1951 Refugee convention: A comprehensive code of conduct for the
   treatment of refugees, defining who they are, their rights, and the legal
   obligations of states. Focuses on key aspects like non-refoulement,
   prohibiting the forced return of refugees.
2. 1967 Protocol: Expanded the geographical and temporal scope of the 1951
   Convention, addressing newer challenges faced by refugees and making
   provisions universally applicable.

Question 7

History of International Concern for Human Rights

Answer 7

1. World War II Aftermath: Following the catastrophic events and human rights
   violations of WWII, nations were determined to develop an international
   framework that would prevent future atrocities. This marked the beginning of
   human rights as an international agenda.
2. UN Charter: Established in 1945, the charter emphasised the importance of
   human rights, setting a precedent for international collaboration.

Question 8

Influence of Globalisation on International Concern for Human Rights

Answer 8

1. Exposure to Atrocities: As communication technology advanced, human rights
   abuses in one region gained immediate global visibility, sparking international
   outcries and demands for action.
2. Economic Interdependence: Nations became intertwined not just politically,
   but economically. This interdependence brought with it an obligation to uphold
   certain ethical and human rights standards.

Question 9

Regional Instruments that aid in Human Rights

Answer 9

1. European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR): Implemented in 1953, the
   ECHR oversees the protection of human rights in Europe.
2. African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: Adopted in 1981, this charter
   reinforces human rights in the African context.
3. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights: Serving the Americas, this
   body attends to human rights issues specific to its region.

Question 10

Universal Jurisdiction of Human Rights Abuses

Answer 10

1. Universal jurisdiction is a revolutionary legal doctrine permitting nations to
   claim criminal jurisdiction over an accused person irrespective of nationality or
   where the alleged crime was committed.
2. Crimes under this ambit are war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity
   and torture and enforced disappearances.

Question 10

Customary Law and Statutory Law

Answer 10

1. Customary Law: These laws, being unwritten, evolve from prolonged
   practices and are built on societal mores.
2. Statutory Law: These are the codified laws passed by legislative bodies.
3. Symbiosis can occur: Situations where customary and statutory laws mutually
   uphold human rights.
4. Dominance can occur: In certain systems, statutory laws hold precedence and
   can override customary laws if they contravene human rights.
5. Friction can occur: Statutory laws, especially if introduced externally, can be
   seen as invasive and resisted in favour of customary laws.

Question 11

International Humanitarian Law

Answer 11

1. Predominantly focused on limiting the barbarities of war, IHL sets forth rules
   that are in force during conflicts, aiming to safeguard those not actively
   participating in the hostilities.
2. The Geneva Conventions are the main foundational treaties: These 1949
   conventions, divided into four primary treaties, epitomise the international
   standards for humane treatment during wars, particularly concerning civilians,
   prisoners of war, and the injured.
3. IHL differs from Human rights in terms of the scope of application, and the fact
   that it is treaty based(it is not customs)
4. The International Criminal Court is pivotal in prosecuting IHL violators
5. The international Committee of the Red Cross promotes and monitors IHL.

Question 12

Contemporary Challenges in Humanitarian Law

Answer 12

1. Sovereignty vs. Global Standards: Balancing between upholding international
   human rights and respecting state sovereignty has been a longstanding
   challenge. Certain states view international interventions as infringements
   upon their sovereignty.
2. Inconsistent Implementation: Despite the foundational importance of universal
   jurisdiction, its real-world application is frequently marred by inconsistencies.
   Factors like politics, strategic alliances, and economic interests can dictate
   whether action is taken against alleged wrongdoers.
3. IHL and Human Rights Law Intersection: While both frameworks share the
   goal of safeguarding human dignity, their confluence can lead to intricate legal
   scenarios, especially in conflict zones.
4. Jurisdictional Conflicts: Determining the appropriate forum for prosecuting
   international crimes, given the multiple overlapping jurisdictions, can pose
   challenges.

Question 13

Influence of customs on Human Rights

Answer 13

1. Influence on Perception: Customs, being society’s moral compass, can often
   determine how human rights are perceived. If the core principles of a custom
   align with human rights, societies may be more receptive to embracing those
   rights. Conversely, customs might also serve as barriers, especially if they
   inherently violate global human rights norms.
2. Influence on Implementation: Customary practices can influence the
   mechanism of human rights enforcement. When a nation’s customs align with
   human rights, they can facilitate the enforcement process. However, if
   customs are at odds with human rights norms, it could hinder the
   implementation, causing friction between tradition and modernity

Question 14

Challenges in the Custom-Human Rights Nexus

Answer 14

1. Cultural Relativism: The argument that human rights are not universally
   applicable but should be adapted to each culture’s nuances. This stance can
   sometimes mask human rights abuses under the guise of customs.
2. Resistance to Adaptation: Age-old customs can create strong resistances to
   human rights norms, especially when communities believe their identity is
   under siege.
3. Legal Ambiguities: Dual systems, i.e., customary and statutory, can lead to
   ambiguities, with people often torn between which to follow, especially in
   scenarios of conflict

Question 15

South African Constitution Protecting Human Rights(background, key provisions,
implications)

Answer 15

1. Background: After decades under the oppressive apartheid system, South
   Africa transitioned to a democracy in the 1990s. To ensure past mistakes
   weren’t repeated, a new constitution, which was formally adopted in 1996,
   placed human rights at its core. The drafting process involved extensive
   consultations, including public participation, reflecting a nation’s collective
   aspiration.
2. Key Provisions: There was a bill of rights, focus on maintaining equality, and
   emphasis on freedom of expression
3. Implications: Constitutional court, affirmative action, land rights

Question 15

Implications of Constitutional Rights on
National Legal Frameworks and Practices

Answer 15

1. Direct Application: When a constitution enumerates rights, they’re not merely
   aspirational. Citizens can invoke these rights in courts, leading to tangible
   remedies.
2. Legislative influence: All legislative proposals undergo a constitutional litmus
   test. Laws contradictory to constitutional guarantees risk being invalidated.
   Over time, this ensures national legislation evolves, mirroring the
   constitution’s ethos.
3. Judicial Review: Courts, especially apex ones, are empowered to review
   governmental actions and laws. This acts as a check on potential overreaches
   or transgressions by the legislative or executive branches. This dynamic
   fosters a culture of rights-respectful governance, with the judiciary acting as
   the final sentinel.
4. Political and Civic Participation: Politicians, while crafting policies or
   campaigning, use the constitution as a reference point. Promising better
   enforcement or suggesting amendments becomes part of the democratic
   discourse. For civil society, these rights provide tools for advocacy, allowing
   them to hold authorities accountable.
5. One Challenge is varied interpretations: As societal norms evolve, so does
   the interpretation of rights. Courts are frequently tasked with navigating this
   dynamic, ensuring rights remain relevant and meaningful. E.g. US supreme
   court.

Question 16

Role of International agreements in setting human rights standards

Answer 16

1. Setting Standards: They’ve established universal benchmarks, urging states
   to meet and uphold specific human rights norms.
2. Promoting Accountability: Their monitoring mechanisms instil accountability
   among member states, ensuring that obligations are not just words on paper.
3. Raising Awareness: By codifying rights, they’ve bolstered global awareness,
   catalysing advocacy movements and informing citizens of their inherent rights.
4. Driving Legislation: Many nations, spurred by these treaties, have revamped
   or introduced new laws, embedding these rights within national frameworks

Question 17

National Courts(Role, effectiveness, challenges)

Answer 17

1. Role: A national protection mechanisms of human rights that serve as the
   primary protectors of human rights within a country’s borders. They offer the
   means to interpret and enforce rights enshrined in constitutions, legislation,
   and ratified international treaties.
2. Effectiveness: The efficacy of national courts is intrinsically tied to the
   independence of the judiciary. In nations with a robust rule of law, courts
   frequently offer effective remedies against human rights infringements.
3. Challenges: judicial backlog, political interference, access barriers

Question 18

Police and law Enforcement(Role, effectiveness, challenges)

Answer 18

1. Role: a national protection mechanism of human rights that enforce laws,
   inclusive of those safeguarding human rights, and are tasked with preserving
   public order and safety.
2. Effectiveness: The perception of police varies. In certain nations, they’re
   viewed as the custodians of public welfare; in others, they’re often deemed
   culprits of rights violations.
3. Challenges: Abuse of power, training deficits, corruption

Question 19

International Criminal Court(Role, effectiveness, challenges)

Answer 19

1. Role: Is an international protection mechanism of human rights The ICC
   prosecutes individuals for egregious violations that transcend national
   boundaries, including genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
2. Effectiveness: Effectiveness: The ICC, since its inception, has rendered
   several pivotal verdicts, bringing high-ranking officials and leaders to account.
3. Challenges: jurisdiction confines(ignores some crimes), reliant on state
   cooperation, bias allegations(particularly against african states)

Question 20

International Court Justice(Role, effectiveness, challenges)

Answer 20

1. Role: The ICJ, seated in The Hague, acts as the primary judicial arm of the
   United Nations. It is an international protection mechanism for human rights. It
   arbitrates disputes between states and offers advisory opinions on matters of
   international law, encompassing human rights issues.
2. Effectiveness: The ICJ has been instrumental in amicably resolving a
   multitude of disputes. Whilst its judgements are legally binding, they often lack
   robust enforcement mechanisms.
3. Challenges: Jurisdictional limits(states need to consent to be tried),
   enforcement lacunae(not a potent mechanism to implement judgements
   There is also an alleged bias of them being swayed by the worlds major
   actors

Question 21

General Criticisms of Protection Mechanisms of Human Rights

Answer 21

1. Selective Scrutiny: Both national and international bodies face accusations of
   biased focus, often based on political or economic considerations.
2. Enforcement Dilemma: Many international mechanisms, despite their moral
   clout, lack tangible tools to enforce their mandates.
3. Sovereignty Sensitivities: Intervention, especially by international bodies,
   often raises hackles, with nations viewing it as an affront to their sovereignty.
4. Operational Inefficiencies: Protracted bureaucratic processes and
   deliberations can stymie timely action, rendering the pursuit of justice
   painstakingly slow.

Question 22

Ombudsmen(definition, functionality, effectiveness)

Answer 22

1. Definition: An ombudsman is typically an independent office, appointed by the
   state but distanced from the executive government, tasked with addressing
   complaints from the public and promoting the interests of the citizenry against
   maladministration.
2. Functionality: As intermediaries between the state and the public, they play an
   integral role in nations with a history of human rights violations. They inspect
   government actions, mediate for the public, and investigate claims of rights
   abuses.
3. Effectiveness: The effectiveness is contingent on their independence,
   authority, and public perception. In some cases, they are essential in bringing
   human rights issues to governmental attention and offering remedies, while in
   others, their effectiveness is limited by political control, inadequate funding,
   and lack of public trust.

Question 23

Monitoring Methods

Answer 23

1. Election monitoring: To ensure the integrity and fairness of electoral
   processes Teams are deployed to observe electoral campaigns, voting
   processes, ballot counting, and results declaration. They assess the election’s
   adherence to national laws and international standards. Their presence can
   deter electoral fraud, enhance public confidence, and encourage
   transparency, although their ability to intervene in electoral processes is
   limited.
2. Fact Finding missions: These missions gather direct, on-ground facts in
   response to human rights violation reports They require meticulous planning,
   securing testimonies from victims and witnesses, gathering physical evidence,
   and cross-referencing information sources. Missions often face obstacles
   such as restricted access, hostility from local authorities, and the hazards of
   operating in unstable or violent regions. Their findings’ validity can also be
   contested by those with vested interests.

Question 24

General Challenges in Monitoring Human Rights

Answer 24

1. Access and Safety: Physical access to locations, particularly in hostile
   environments like war zones or authoritarian states, remains a major obstacle.
   The safety of human rights monitors in these areas is also a significant
   concern.
2. Political Interference: State actors may hinder operations through bureaucratic
   obstacles, political pressure, or outright hostility.
3. Resource Constraints: Extensive funding is required for sustained and
   expansive monitoring, which is often in short supply, leading to limitations in
   scope and the depth of investigations.
4. Perception and Bias: Monitors must maintain impartiality and manage
   perceptions of bias to retain credibility. However, the subjectivity inherent in
   interpreting human rights norms and the political motivations of different
   actors can affect this.

Question 25

Human Rights Watch in Myanmar(context, activities, achievements and limitations)

Answer 25

1. Context: HRW has been actively reporting on the human rights crisis in
   Myanmar, especially post-2021 military coup.
2. Activities: Their work includes documenting military abuses, civilian
   casualties, and the displacement of populations.
3. Achievements and Limitations: HRW’s reports have drawn international
   attention and condemnation, yet the military junta’s unresponsiveness and
   restrictions on media and NGOs limit the impact

Question 26

Amnesty International in Russia(focus, strategies and impacts)

Answer 26

1. Focus: AI has extensively monitored and reported on human rights issues in
   Russia, including freedom of speech, rights of minorities, and political
   dissidence.
2. Strategies and Impacts: Through public campaigns and detailed reports, AI
   has brought international focus to these issues. However, the Russian
   government’s repressive measures against NGOs and strict control over the
   media hinder effective advocacy within the country.

Question 27

Human Rights Claims: Labour Rights(History, Objectives, case study)

Answer 27

1. History: Post the inhumane working condition ridden industrial revolution,
   formation of the International Labour organisation and more actions have
   been taken out to guarantee better labour rights.
2. Key objectives: Fair wages, safe working conditions, and reasonable working
   hours: These remain central objectives, seeking to balance power between
   employers and employees. Right to unionise and collective bargaining:
   Empowering workers to negotiate better terms and protect themselves against
   unjust treatment.
3. Case study: Bangladesh Garment Workers’ Protests (2013): Following the
   Rana Plaza collapse, these protests highlighted the need for safer working
   conditions and fair wages in developing countries.

Question 28

Human Rights Claims: Indigenous land claims(History, Objectives, case study)

Answer 28

1. History: Stemming from colonial practices that dispossessed indigenous
   communities of their lands and rights, leading to long-term marginalisation.
2. Key objectives: Recognition of traditional lands: Efforts to reclaim and secure
   legal titles to traditional lands. Preservation of indigenous culture: Maintaining
   connections to ancestral lands is critical for cultural heritage and identity.
3. Case Study: Standing Rock Sioux Tribe vs. Dakota Access Pipeline, USA:
   Highlighted issues of sovereign rights and environmental protection.

Question 29

Human Rights Claims:Gender Equality Movements(History, Objectives, case study)

Answer 29

1. History: Began with a focus on women’s suffrage in the late 19th and early
   20th centuries, progressively expanding to include broader issues of equality
   in employment, education, and societal roles.
2. Objectives: Combatting gender-based discrimination: Addressing legal and
   societal biases that inhibit gender equality. Promotion of reproductive rights
   and freedom from gender-based violence: Ensuring women have control over
   their bodies and protection from abuse.
3. Case study: women’s activism in IRan

Question 30

Causes of Human Rights Violations

Answer 30

1. Political Factors: armed conflicts, corruption, authoritarian governments
2. Economic factors: povery and inequality, globalisation
3. Social and cultural factors: discrimination, traditional practices(some
   traditional practices, despite being culturally accepted, violate human rights)

Question 31

Child soldiers(Definition and scale, causes, impact, example)

Answer 31

1. Definition and scale: Children under 18 participating in armed forces.
   Thousands are recruited across various continents, especially in Africa and
   parts of Asia.
2. Causes: poverty and instability, abduction and coercion, ideological
   indoctrination
3. Impacts: psychological trauma, interrupted education, health issues
4. Example: Myanmar Human Rights Watch estimated that children
   may account for 35 to 45 percent of new recruits into the
   national army, and 70,000 or more of Myanmar’s estimated
   350,000 soldiers

Question 32

Denial of Prisoner of War’s Rights(context, manifestations and impacts, examples)

Answer 32

1. Context: POWs are entitled to certain rights under the Geneva Conventions,
   such as humane treatment and repatriation after conflict. Violations include
   torture, inhumane treatment, and forced labour.
2. Manifestations: Physical Abuse: Including torture and deprivation of
   necessities. Psychological Torture: Such as solitary confinement and threats.
3. Impacts: Long-Term Health Issues: Both mental and physical. International
   Relations: Breaches can lead to diplomatic strains.
4. Examples: Amnesty International published a report in 2021 that
   shed light on the ongoing human rights violations at
   Guantánamo Bay. The report criticized the detainees’
   inadequate medical care and condemned their indefinite
   imprisonment without fair trials.

Question 32

Gender Discrimination(what it is, areas affected, outcomes, Examples)

Answer 32

1. What it is: Unequal treatment or bias based on gender, affecting all genders
   but predominantly women and gender minorities.
2. Areas affected: Workplace Discrimination: Pay gaps, career progression.
   Health and Education: Access to services and rights.
3. Outcomes: Economic Inequality: Limits participation in the economy. Social
   Implications: Perpetuates stereotypes and institutional discrimination.
4. Examples: Iran and switzerland

Question 33

General Ways to Address Human Rights Violations

Answer 33

1. Legal Frameworks: Enacting and enforcing laws to protect human rights.
2. Education and Awareness: Promoting understanding and respect for rights.
3. International Cooperation: Through treaties, trade agreements, and diplomatic
   efforts.

Question 34

Western Liberal Theory on Human Rights(origin, features, impact, criticism)

Answer 34

1. Origin and Influencers: Tracing back to Enlightenment thinkers like John
   Locke, who emphasised natural rights and individual liberties, and John Stuart
   Mill, with his advocacy for personal freedom and liberty against state
   interference.
2. Key features: Emphasis on individual rights such as freedom of speech,
   religion, and the right to private property. Rights seen as universal, inherent,
   and inalienable.
3. Impact: These ideas have profoundly shaped international human rights laws
   like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).
4. Criticisms: Critics argue they fail to consider the social and communal aspects
   of human life, potentially leading to a neglect of collective responsibilities and
   societal welfare.
5. E.g. the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution safeguarding freedom of
   speech. The European Convention on Human Rights focusing primarily on
   civil and political rights of individuals.

Question 35

Communitarian and Collective Approaches(origin, features,
contrast with western theories)

Answer 35

1. Origin and Influencers: Rooted in non-Western philosophies and indigenous
   societies, with significant contributions from African Ubuntu philosophy, Asian
   Confucian values, and Native American communal ideologies.
2. Features: Collective rights, such as rights to cultural preservation, land, and
   self-determination. Emphasis on community, social responsibilities, and
   interdependence.
3. Contrat with western theories: Collective approaches view rights within the
   context of society and culture, arguing that the wellbeing of the group
   contributes to the wellbeing of individuals. Advocates highlight the need for
   balance between individual liberties and communal harmony.
4. E.g The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights integrates individual
   and collective rights. Many Asian constitutions incorporate duties towards the
   state and society, reflecting collective ideologies

Question 36

Balancing individual and collective interests

Answer 36

1. Differing Perspectives: The Western focus on individual autonomy is often
   viewed as conflicting with the collective ethos predominant in non-Western
   societies.
2. Universal vs Contextual Rights: While international instruments like the UDHR
   attempt to universalise rights, they often face challenges in contexts where
   collective rights are prioritised.
3. Dynamic Interpretations: The emphasis on different types of rights is subject
   to change based on political, economic, and social dynamics within societies,
   reflecting evolving values and historical experiences

Question 36

Potential Examples of Tension and Integration between collective and individual
rights

Answer 36

1. Conflicting Rights: Instances where individual rights (like freedom of speech)
   may clash with collective rights (like maintaining public order or cultural
   values).
2. Harmonising Approaches: Some nations are increasingly recognising the
   need to integrate both perspectives. Examples include Canada’s reconciliation
   efforts with Indigenous peoples, balancing national interests and Indigenous
   collective rights.

Question 37

Impact of Individual vs. collective rights on global human
rights policies

Answer 37

1. Policy Formulation and Implementation: I The United Nations,
   largely influenced by Western liberalism, adopts an individualistic rights
   approach. However, it increasingly acknowledges the importance of collective
   rights, especially concerning indigenous and minority groups. Additionally
   Many countries mirror these international norms in their laws, but adaptations
   occur based on regional and cultural particularities.
2. Challenges in enforcement and interpretation as a result of
   collective vs individual rights: inherent conflict, necessity for
   balancing acts in legal systems to balance these rights(most of the
   time just results in predominant cultural ethos being prioritised)
3. The Role of cultural relativism: This debate significantly impacts how individual and
   collective rights are perceived and applied in different societies. It leads to diverse
   implementation strategies that respect cultural differences while attempting to uphold
   fundamental human rights.

Question 38

Analysis of Universalism(Moral absolutism, pros, cons)

Answer 38

1. Moral Absolutism: Belief in inalienable, indivisible rights that are inherent to all
   humans.
2. Pros: Provides a stable foundation for international law and human rights
   protection. Promotes equality and nondiscrimination globally.
3. Cons: May be seen as a form of cultural imperialism, imposing Western
   values on other societies. Could overlook local traditions and practices,
   leading to potential conflicts.

Question 39

Cultural Relativism(contextual morality, pros, cons)

Answer 39

1. Contextual Morality: Views moral values, rights, and ethics as contingent upon
   cultural context.
2. Pros: Encourages respect and tolerance for diverse cultures and practices.
   Allows more flexibility and adaptability in applying human rights based on
   local customs.
3. Cons: Risk of justifying abusive practices under the guise of cultural practices.
   Might lead to fragmentation of international human rights standards.

Question 40

Sharia Law(context, universalist critique, relativist defence)

Answer 40

1. Context: A legal system based on Islamic principles and teachings.
2. Universalist Critique: Argues that certain aspects, such as gender inequality
   and punitive measures, violate universal human rights standards.
3. Relativist Defence: Emphasises respect for religious freedom and societal
   norms inherent in Islamic countries, viewing these laws as integral to religious
   identity and cultural cohesion.

Question 41

Honour Killings(definition, universalist stance, cultural relativist stance)

Answer 41

1. Definition: Acts, often violent, committed against family members (typically
   women) to protect or defend the perceived honour of the family.
2. Universalist Perspective: View these practices as unequivocal human rights
   violations, particularly concerning women’s rights and the right to life and
   safety.
3. Relativist Angle: Some argue that understanding the cultural and social
   context of these practices is crucial, although most relativists still contend that
   such acts are indefensible.

Question 42

Consumer Rights(context, universalist stance, cultural relativist stance)

Answer 42

1. Global Context: Covers issues like product safety, accurate information,
   freedom of choice, and the right to be heard.
2. Universalist Stance: Advocates for consistent consumer protection standards,
   ensuring fairness and safety worldwide.
3. Cultural Relativism: Points out that economic, social, and cultural differences
   should inform consumer rights, acknowledging different levels of development
   and consumer practices.

Question 42

Human Rights used as political tools:

Answer 42

1. Strategic usage in international relations: legitimization and critique(e.g States
   or political groups might use human rights rhetoric to legitimise their own
   actions or criticise their adversaries) and selective enforcement(selective
   enforcement and acknowledgement of human rights issues can reflect
   geopolitical interests more than humanitarian concerns)
2. Domestic Politics: internal discourse control, promotion of national agenda

Question 43

Economic Sanctions and Human Rights(Types, effectiveness)

Answer 43

1. Types: Comprehensive vs. Targeted: Comprehensive sanctions affect entire
   countries, while targeted or “smart” sanctions aim at specific individuals,
   groups, or sectors. Targeted sanctions are increasingly preferred to minimise
   suffering among the general population.
2. Human Cost: Even targeted sanctions can lead to unintended socio-economic
   hardships, affecting the most vulnerable groups in society.
3. Effectiveness: Long-Term Impact: The long-term effectiveness of sanctions in
   compelling change is debated. Cases like North Korea demonstrate how
   regimes can resist external pressure over extended periods, often with severe
   humanitarian consequences. Symbolic Value vs. Practical Outcomes:
   Sanctions can be more symbolic, serving to denounce certain actions and
   actors internationally rather than achieving immediate change.
4. Good Example: Sanctions in Syria a series of economic sanctions
   and restrictions imposed by the European Union, the United
   States, Canada, Australia, Switzerland, mainly as a result of
   the repression of civilians in the Syrian civil war from 2011
   onwards.

Question 44

Challenges in neutrality of Human Rights organisations

Answer 44

1. Funding and Independence: The source of funding for human rights NGOs
   can influence their agendas and focus, raising questions about their neutrality
   and independence.
2. Perception of Bias: Accusations of geographical or political bias in reporting
   human rights issues can undermine these organisations’ credibility and
   effectiveness.