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Psychology > Chapter 3- Biological Psychology > Flashcards

Chapter 3- Biological Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What’s a neuron?

A

Nerve cell specialized for communication with each other

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2
Q

What’s is the cell body/soma of the neuron?

A

The central region of the neuron where materials needed for the neuron are made

  • manufacturers new cell components, which consist of small and large molecules
  • contains the nucleus, which is involved with protein manufacture
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3
Q

What are dendrites

A

Branch like portion of neuron that picks up impulses(chemical messages) from other neurons(receives signals)

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4
Q

What is an axon? What are synaptic vesicles?

A

Axon-specialized for sending messages(action potential) to other neurons. Some are covered in myelin sheath(fatty coat that insulates axon) to make the electrical signal faster
Synaptic vesicles- spherical sac containing neurotransmitters that travel the length of the axon on their way to the axon terminal

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5
Q

What are neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messenger specialized for communication from neuron to neuron .
Some are inhibitory and some excitatory

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6
Q

What is a synapse and a synaptic cleft?

A

Synapse-a tiny fluid space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically
Synaptic cleft-a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal.

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7
Q

What’s a glial cell?

A

Cell in the nervous system that plays a role in the formation of myelin and the blood-brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, and enhances learning and memory

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8
Q

Describe resting potential of s neuron

A

When there are no neurotransmitters acting on the neuron/ when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited.
-more negative particles inside than outside the neuron (-60 to -70 millivolts)

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9
Q

What is threshold

A

When the electrical charge inside the neuron reaches a high enough level relative to the outside(threshold), an electrical impulse(AP) is triggered.
-Threshold= the membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential

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10
Q

What is an action potential

A

AP’s are triggered by a change in charge inside the axon. This change is referred to “firing” like firing a gun.

  • AP’s are electrical impulses that travel down the axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters
  • positively charged particles flow rapidly into the axon and then flow out just as fast, causing a spike in positive charge followed by a sudden decrease in charge, (inside charge ending up slightly more negative than its original level)
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11
Q

Explain the all-or-none law and action potentials

A

Action potentials either fire or they don’t, just like a gun

-AP’s originate in the trigger zone near the cell body and continue to down the axon to the terminal branches

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12
Q

What do the sudden shifts in charge of an axon produce?

A

Release of electricity! When the electrical charge reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters

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13
Q

What is the absolute refractory period

A

Following an AP, there is a brief interval during which another action potential can’t occur.
-limits the maximum firing rate

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14
Q

What is a graded potential?

A

Postsynaptic potentials that can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on whether positively or negatively charged particles flow across the neuronal membrane and in which direction they flow
-increase or decrease the likelihood that an AP will occur

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15
Q

When does an excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potential occur?

A

EPSP- when positive charged ions are allowed in the axon(depolarizes the neuron)
IPSP- if negative charged ions are allowed in(hyperpolarizes neuron)

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16
Q

Describe reuptake

A

Synaptic vesicles reabsorbs the neurotransmitter in axon terminal (recycling neurotransmitters)

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17
Q

What are the two most common NT’s in the CNS?

A

Glutamate- rapidly excites neurons, (increasing nervous system activity) increasingly the likelihood that they’ll communicate with other neurons
*high doses can be toxic and damage neural receptors(over stimulating) causing schizophrenia/mental disorders
Gamma-aminobutyric acid(GABA)- in contrast, GABA is the main inhibitory NT in the CNS, thereby decreasing neural activity. That’s why most anti-anxiety drugs activate GABA receptors(tend to suppress overactive brain areas linked to worry)

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18
Q

Describe the NT’s acetylcholine, monoamine, Anandamide, and neuropeptides

A

Acetylcholine- plays a role in arousal, selective attention, sleep and memory(crucial for Alzheimer’s). Also has role of muscle contraction

Monoamines- NT’s that contain one amino acid, ex. Dopamine-motor function and reward
serotonin-mood and temp regulation, aggression and sleep cycles

Anandamide- pain reduction, increase in appetite

Neuropeptides- (like NT’s but more narrowly targeted in their jobs) short strands of amino acids
Ex. Endorphins- chemical in brain that plays role in pain reduction

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19
Q

What is the meaning of agonist and antagonist drugs

A

Agonists drugs increase receptor site activity, for example morphine reduces our emotional response to painful stimuli by binding with opioid receptors and mimicking endorphins

Antagonist drugs decrease receptor site activity I blocking preceptors by binding to them

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20
Q

Describe the term plasticity

A

The ability of the nervous system to change

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21
Q

What are the four primary ways the network of neurons in the brain changes over the course of development

A
  1. Growth of dendrites and axons
  2. Synaptogenesis, the formation of new synapses
  3. Pruning, consisting of the death of certain neurons and the retraction of axons to remove connections that aren’t useful
  4. Myelination, installation of axons with my myelin shelf
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22
Q

What is neurogenesis

A

The creation of new neurons in the adult brain

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23
Q

What are stem cells

A

Cells often originating in the embryo, having the capacity to differentiate into more specialized cells
-stem cell offers several ways of treating diseases marked by neural degeneration

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24
Q

What does the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system consist of

A

The central nervous system(CNS)-part of the nervous system containing the brain and spinal cord that controls the mind and behaviour

Peripheral nervous system(PNS)-nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system(motor and sensory neuron’s) motor neuron’s further divide into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

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25
What's the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system controls voluntary behaviour(digesting/breathing) in the autonomic nervous system controls nonvoluntary functions of the body
26
Describe the six distinct sections or systems of the central nervous system
1. Cortex (site of most of the brains conscious functions) * Frontal lobe-performs executive functions that coordinate other brain areas, Motor planning, language, memory * Parietal lobe-processes touch information, integrates in touch * Temporal lobe-processes auditory information, language, autobiographical memory * Occipital lobe-processes visual information 2. Basil ganglia-controlled movement and motor planning 3. Limbic system * Thalamus-conveys sensory information to cortex * Hypothalamus-oversees endocrine&automatic ns * Amygdala-regulates arousal and fear 4. Cerebellum- Controls balance and coordinated movement 5. Brainstem(Control of involuntary functions) * Midbrain-tracks visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound * Pons-conveys information between the cortex and cerebellum * Medulla- regulates breathing and heartbeats 6. Spinal cord-conveys information between the brain and the rest of the body
27
What are cerebral ventricles
Fluid filled pockets in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid, would provide the brain with nutrients and cushion against injury. (Shock absorber)
28
What is the corpus callosum
Bundle of nerve fibres connecting the cerebrum's two hemispheres and permits them to communicate
29
What is the cerebrum/forebrain
Forward part of the brain that allows advanced intellectual abilities(The most highly developed area of the brain)
30
What is the cerebral cortex
Largest and Outermost part of the cerebrum(surrounds the hemispheres), contains four regions called lobes
31
Describe the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
* Frontal lobe-performs executive functions that coordinate other brain areas, Motor planning, language, memory * Parietal lobe-processes touch information, integrates in touch * Temporal lobe-processes auditory information, language, autobiographical memory * Occipital lobe-processes visual information
32
What is the motor cortex
Part of the frontal lobe that lies next to the central sulcus(separates the frontal lobe from the rest of the cortex), responsible for body movement. each part of the motor cortex controls a specific part of the body.
33
What is the prefrontal cortex and Broca's area
Part of the frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning and language, also contributes to mood, personality and self-awareness Broca'a area is the language area in the prefrontal cortex that helps to control speech production
34
What is the primary sensory cortex
Back region of the parietal lobe, laying just behind the motor cortex. Sensitive to touch, including pressure, pain and temp. Also helps us process others actions and represent numbers
35
What is the Wernickes area? And the auditory cortex?
The auditor cortex is located at the top of the temporal lobe, part of the cortex devoted to hearing. The language area in the temporal lobe is called the Wernicke's area(involved in understanding speech)
36
What is the primary sensory cortex and the association cortex
The primary sensory cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses Association cortex is the regions of the cerebral cortex the integrate similar functions to perform more complex functions
37
What is the basal ganglia
Structures buried deep inside the cerebral cortex/forebrain to help control movement
38
What is the limbic system
Motional centre of the brain but also plays rose and smell, motivation, and memory. Consist mainly of the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala , and hippocampus
39
What's the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus?
Thalamus-Gateway from the sensory organs to the primary sensory cortex(sensory relay station) Hypothalamus-responsible for maintaining a constant internal state(ex. regulates hunger, thirst, body temp) Amygdala-responsible for excitement, arousal, and especially fear Hippocampus-plays a crucial role in memory(especially spatial memory-memory of the physical layout of things in the environment)
40
What is the cerebellum
"Little brain" responsible for our sense of balance
41
What is the brain stem/ it's parts?
Part of the brain between the spinal cord and the cerebral cortex that contains the midbrain, pons and medulla Midbrain-contributes to movement, tracking a visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound Pons-part of the brainstem that connects the cortex with the Cerebellum. Crucial role in triggering dreams Medulla-part of brain stem involved in basic functions, such as heart beat and breathing
42
What is the reticular activating system
Brain area that plays a key role in arousal(connects to the forebrain and cerebral cortex)
43
Describe the spinal cord
Thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body
44
What is an interneuron or relay neuron
Neuron that sends messages to other neurons nearby. They connect sensory nerves with motor nerves within the spinal cord without having to report back to the brain. (Reflex)
45
What is a reflex
An automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus. Ex. Pulling your hand away from a hot iron
46
What is the peripheral nervous system
Part of the nervous system consisting of the nerves that extend outside of the CNS(outside of the brain/spine). The PNS contains two branches, somatic and automatic nervous systems
47
What are the automatic and somatic nervous system's
And the somatic nervous system is the part of the nervous system that conveys information between the CNS in the body, controlling and coordinating voluntary movements Autonomic nervous system is part of the nervous system controlling involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands; along with the limbic system, it participants in emotion regulation
48
Describe the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system-engaged during a crisis or after actions requiring fight or flight(increased heart rate allowing more blood flow into our extremities, dilates eyes too allow in more light) Parasympathetic nervous system- opposite of sympathetic NS, Controls rest and digestion (kicks into gear when there's no threat)
49
What is the endocrine system and what are hormones
A system of glands and hormones that control secretion of blood-borne chemical messengers A hormone is a chemical released into the bloodstream that influences particular organs and glands
50
What's the difference between hormones and neurotransmitters
Hormones are carried through our blood vessels, neurotransmitters are carried through our nerves, therefore hormones are much slower in their actions. However hormones tend to outlast NT's in their effects
51
Describe the pituitary gland
Gland that controls other glands in the body (master gland) under the control of the hypothalamus. Releases a variety of hormones that serve numerous functions ex. The hormone oxytocin is responsorable for several reproductive functions including contractions during childbirth. -consists of anterior and posterior pituitary gland
52
Describe the adrenal glands
Tissue located on top of the kidneys that releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal. Adrenaline boosts energy production in muscle cells, thrusting them into action. Nerves of the sympathetic nervous system signal the adrenal gland to release adrenaline
53
Describe the two types of glial cells
Astrocytes- most abundant glial cell that interacts with up to a million neuron's and communicates closely with them. They control blood flow in the brain and play a vital role in embryo development. -they bring in nutrients and get rid of waste -found in abundant supply in the blood-brain barrier, a protective shield that insulates the brain from infection. Oligodendrocytes-promotes new connections among nerve cells and releases chemicals to aid in healing -produces myelin sheath
54
Explain how Multiple Sclerosis(MS) occurs
An autonomic disease where the myelin sheaths surrounding neuron's are "eaten away", resulting in progressive loss of insulation of neural messages. These messages become hopelessly scrambled
55
What is serotonin and norepinephrine?
Both are monoamines along with dopamine. Serotonin deals with mood, sleep and pain while norepinephrine and epinephrine(adrenaline) are involved in increasing vigilance(brain is ready to react, fight or flight response)
56
What is the association cortex
After the eye, ear, or skin transmits sense information to the primary sensory cortex specific to that sense, it's passed on to the association cortex, which is spread throughout all four of the brain lobes. Association cortex synthesizes information to preform more complex functions
57
What's the Thalamus
Part of the limbic system that acts as a relay station – gateway from the sensory organs to the primary sensory cortex
58
What is the hypothalamus and what are the 4 "f's" that it controls?
``` Part of the limbic system responsible for maintaining a constant ternal state. It overseas endocrine(hormones) and autonomic nervous system 1 fighting 2 fleeing 3 feeding 4 mating ```
59
What is the amygdala?
Part of the limbic system that plays key roles and excitement arousal and especially fear
60
What is the hippocampus
Part of the limbic system plays a crucial role in memory especially spatial memory(memory of physical layout of things in our environment)
61
What is the cerebellum
Brain structure responsible for our sense of balance and enables us to coordinate movement and learn motor skills - really fine, minute movements, for example writing - integrate in returns motor output - as highest neuron destiny in the brain
62
What is the brainstem
Contains the midbrain ponds and the Maduell Oblongata | -Regulates control of involuntary functions
63
What is the reticular activating system
Connected to the forebrain and the cerebral cortex; this system plays a key role in arousal -turns your brain on/makes it work
64
What is the function of the midbrain, ponds, and medulla
all are part of the brainstem Midbrain-tracks visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound Pons-conveys information between the cortex and cerebellum. Sleep and arousal Medulla-involved in basic vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing
65
What is the function of the spinal cord
Big bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the rest of the body
66
What is the somatic nervous system
Carries messages from the central nervous system to muscles throughout the body, controlling movement -controlling voluntary movement
67
What is the autonomic nervous system
Controls involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands; along with the limbic system, it participates in emotion figuration
68
Describe the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
Both are divisions of the autonomic nervous system that work in opposing directions. The sympathetic NS is active during emotional arousal and especially during a crisis, it mobilizes fight or flight response.(increased heart rate and breathing and suppresses digestion) -The parasympathetic NS is active during rest and digestion and kicks into gear when there's no threat on our mental radar screens
69
What is an electroencephalograph(EEG)
A device that measures electrical activity generated by the brainat the surface of the skull - tell scientists which regions of the brain are active during specific tasks also tells if a person is asleep or awake, dreaming or not - disadvantages(average of neural activity, tells little about what's happening inside neurons and where exactly bring activity is occurring)
70
What is a computed tomography(CT) and magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) and what are their limitations
both allow us to visualize the brain structure but not it's activity CT-scanning technique using multiple x-rays to construct three-dimensional images - good for detecting broad things like stroke/tumour - high density of scan is white and grainy - Dead brain tissue shows up as dark MRI-technique that uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure - MRI images are superior to CT scans for detecting soft tissues, such as brain tumours - higher quality than CT scans - detailed quality, shows smaller things
71
What is Position Emission Tomography(PET)?
- invasive imaging technique which measures consumption of glucose like molecules, yielding a picture of neural activity in different regions of the brain. - Scan is colourful. Active parts of the brain are shown in bright colours
72
What is a functional MRI(fMRI)?
Technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity - measures the change in blood oxygen level and is extremely sensitive to motion - mostly black and white with a little colour of the dominating functional area - sharper - Image only the very active parts of the brain
73
What is transcranial magnetic stimulation(TMS)?
Technique that applies strong and quickly changing magnetic field to the surface of the skull that can either enhance or interpret brain function in a specific region - offers useful insights regarding which brain areas are involved in different psychological processes - it is the only non-invasive brain imaging technique that allows us to infer causation
74
What is Megnetoencephalography(MEG)?
Technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic field generated by the brain - reveals which brain areas are becoming active response to stimuli. - contract brain changes over extremely small time intervals(Millisecond by millisecond)
75
What is lateralization
Cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other(the two hemispheres serve different functions) -lateralized functions concern specific language and verbal skills
76
What is split Brain surgery
A rare procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures
77
How do we study the brain?
1 lesions-ex strokes 2 imaging brain structure-CT and MRI's 3 imaging brain activity-PET Scans and fMRI 4 stimulating the brain-TMS 5 lateralization-organized in opposition, right half of the world is processed by left half of your brain and vice versa
78
What kind is lesions do we use to study the brain
1. Strokes- Hemorrhagic(hemorrhage/blood leaks into brain tissue) and Ischemic(clot stops blood supply to brain) strokes 2. Traumatic brain injury- Open-head(bullet to the head) and closed head injury(concussion) 3. Tumours- mass of cells that grows independently of the brain
79
What is callosotomy?
Cuts out corpus callosum to avoid strokes from damaging both sides of brain. Results in isolation between hemispheres. -split brain functions
80
What problems do split-brain people have?
Often experience difficulties integrating information presented to separate hemispheres but find a way to explain away or make sense they bewildering behaviours - are impaired at integrating information from both visual fields
81
What are chromosomes and genes
Are slender threads inside a cells nucleus that carries genes( humans have 46 chromosomes) -genes are the genetic material composed of DNA
82
What are genotypes and phenotypes
Genotype is our genetic makeup, the set of genes transmitted from our parents to us -phenotype is our set of observable traits, they are shaped by environmental influences such as parenting and life stressors
83
What is fitness
Organisms capacity/chance of passing on their genes to their later generations
84
What is heritability?
The extent to which genes contribute to differences in a trait among individuals, expressed in percentage - applies to groups, not individuals - not a fixed number - in similar environments there's a higher heritability, in different environments there's a lower heritability Ex. Typically heritability of height has a high percent(70-80) and heritability of religious affiliation has a heritability of about 0 meaning that it is due almost entirely to our environment
85
What are the three types of studies scientists use estimate heritability and determine how much both genes and environment contribute to a trait
Family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies
86
What is genetics
The study of the genetic makeup of organisms | -The study of how it influences their physical and behavioural characteristics
87
Defined meioses
A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each containing half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
88
Define homozygous pears and heterozygous pairs
Homozygous pair- both alleles are the same | Heterozygous pair- alleles are different
89
Define concordance, concordant and discordant
- Concordance is the degree of similarity in traits expressed between twins - concordant is when both twins share, both have it, both don't have it - discordant is when only one twin has it * generally, identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins, even those that were treated differently by parents
90
Define heredity
The sum of all trates and tendencies inherited from a person's parents
91
When under threat or attack, how does the body prepare for fight or flight
The nerves of the sympathetic nervous system signal the adrenal gland to release adrenaline, which prepares us for the counterattack (fight) or escape (flight)
92
Many anxiety disorders are associated with elevated levels of what?
Cortisol
93
What is natural selection
The principle that organisms that possess adaptations survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other organism

Psychology (10 decks)

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