Chapter 3 Flashcards
Critical Thinking
active/systematic strategy to examine/evaluate/solve problems/make decisions on basis of reasoning and valid evidence. Maintaing and attitude that is both skeptical and open-minded
- Meta-thinking
- Metathoughts
- set of skills; act of thinking about thinking; engaging in critical analysis and evaluation of the thinking process
- thoughts about thoughts
Descriptions vs. evaluations
descriptions are subj; evalus are objective
Bias of language
- bidirectional relationship
attempts to be neutral constrained by limits of language (no neutral adjectives for describing ppl)
- Attitudes influence langues and our lang influences our beliefs
Dichotomous variables
Two mutually exclusive categories (male vs. female)
Continuous variables
Unlimited number of descriptives between two extremes
False dichotomies
- ex
person-related phenomena presumed to fit into 2 categories rather than on contium; most cases contious v’s more accurate
- indvidualism and collectivism
Similarity- Uniqueness paradox
Determining sims/diffs between 2 sets depends on ur perspective
Every issue has similarities as well as differences
Any 2 phen share at least one fundamental commonality (both phenomena)
Barnum Statement
a personality statement about particular person/group that is true of almost everyone; very general (horoscopes)
Barnum effect
- DeBarnumize
- ppl’s willingness to accept validity of such generic statements
- Applying generic descriptives to yourself, as if it is unique to you
- qualify personality descriptors in terms of degree=under what conditions does it apply?
Schema’s in C-C
- schemas
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Perceptual sets about ppl based on age, gender, race, religion
- When we modify data to fit schema; incorp new info into preexisting belief (even if distorting it)
- When we modify schemas to fit data; change belief
Assimilation Bias
The propensity to resolve discrepancies between preexisting schemas and new information in the direction of assimilation rather than accommodation, even at the expense of distorting the information itself.
Heuristics
mental shortcuts that reduce time-consuming, complex tasks; efficient but not so accurate
Representative Heuristic
- ex
Most basic heuristic; judging likelihood that something fits a category; estimating probability; use it to compare phenomena to our schema and look for match
ex: judging person to fit into group based on sim to other members
Representative Bias
Error resulting from numerous factors such as reliance on faulty prototypes or failure to consider statistical data; Make judgment based on what is commonly expected
Availability Heuristic
Process of drawing on instances easily accessible from memory; helps us answer questions of freq, incidence, likelihood. We tend to assume events occur freq when examples readily available from memory
Availability Bias
Tendency to discount relevant base-rate info and other stat facts; Persuasive power of vivid events
Make judgment based on what comes easily to our recollection
The fundamental attribution error
- 2 sources
Tendency to attribute behavior of another person more to dispositional factors and minimize situational factors.
we overestimate influence of personality while underestimating situation
- 2 sources for attributional errors
1. Cognitive Biases
2. Motivational Biases
Cognitive Biases
systematic mistakes resulting from limits that are inherent in our capacity to process info (bc we are not capable of perceiving everything in envrio; we automatically focus on most eye catching stimuli) we equate most salient stimuli with most influential stimuli
Motivational Biases
- ex
Mistakes from our effort to satisfy own needs such as desire for self-esteem, power, control. Make us feel better even if distorting
ex: belief we can control destiny; we overestimate our controllability
Self-fulfilling prophecy
- one cause
Perceivers assumptions may lead to person adopting those attributes. Our expectations of a person can actually create conditions (with or without our intent) which make them actually behave likewise
- prejudice can cause self perpetuating vicious cycle of adverse repercussions confirming our initial prejudices
Post hoc error
is an example of faulty reasoning based on correlation; mistaken logic that bc B follows A, B must cause A
Paratoxic reasoning
“magical thinking”; events that occur close in time are casually linked (most superstitions based on this)
Undirectional Causation
relationship between 2 variables where one is the cause and other is effect
Bidirectional Causation
a mutual reciprocal relation btwn 2 variables where each is both cause and effect (AKA casual loop, healthy spiral, vicious cycle)
*** This causation happens more often
Multiple causation
any effect usually not result result of one cause but several concurrently
The Naturalistic Fallacy
- types
error in thinking when we confuse objective descriptions with subjective value judgements; defining whats good based on frequency
- Common=good
- Common=bad
- Uncommon=good
- Uncommon=bad
The belief perseverance effect
- how to engage in bp
tendency to cling stubbornly to belief even in face of contradictory evidence; when beliefs are challenged we tend to feel personally challenged
- still can engage in BP without rejecting evidence; find way to reframe info so it supports our belief
