Chapter 3

Question 1

Critical Thinking

Answer 1

active/systematic strategy to examine/evaluate/solve problems/make decisions on basis of reasoning and valid evidence. Maintaing and attitude that is both skeptical and open-minded

Question 2

• Meta-thinking

- Metathoughts

Answer 2

• set of skills; act of thinking about thinking; engaging in critical analysis and evaluation of the thinking process
• thoughts about thoughts

Question 3

Descriptions vs. evaluations

Answer 3

descriptions are subj; evalus are objective

Question 4

Bias of language

- bidirectional relationship

Answer 4

attempts to be neutral constrained by limits of language (no neutral adjectives for describing ppl)
- Attitudes influence langues and our lang influences our beliefs

Question 5

Dichotomous variables

Answer 5

Two mutually exclusive categories (male vs. female)

Question 6

Continuous variables

Answer 6

Unlimited number of descriptives between two extremes

Question 7

False dichotomies

- ex

Answer 7

person-related phenomena presumed to fit into 2 categories rather than on contium; most cases contious v’s more accurate
- indvidualism and collectivism

Question 8

Similarity- Uniqueness paradox

Answer 8

Determining sims/diffs between 2 sets depends on ur perspective
Every issue has similarities as well as differences
Any 2 phen share at least one fundamental commonality (both phenomena)

Question 9

Barnum Statement

Answer 9

a personality statement about particular person/group that is true of almost everyone; very general (horoscopes)

Question 10

Barnum effect

- DeBarnumize

Answer 10

• ppl’s willingness to accept validity of such generic statements
• Applying generic descriptives to yourself, as if it is unique to you
• qualify personality descriptors in terms of degree=under what conditions does it apply?

Question 11

Schema’s in C-C

• schemas
• Assimilation
• Accommodation

Answer 11

• Perceptual sets about ppl based on age, gender, race, religion
• When we modify data to fit schema; incorp new info into preexisting belief (even if distorting it)
• When we modify schemas to fit data; change belief

Question 12

Assimilation Bias

Answer 12

The propensity to resolve discrepancies between preexisting schemas and new information in the direction of assimilation rather than accommodation, even at the expense of distorting the information itself.

Question 13

Heuristics

Answer 13

mental shortcuts that reduce time-consuming, complex tasks; efficient but not so accurate

Question 14

Representative Heuristic

- ex

Answer 14

Most basic heuristic; judging likelihood that something fits a category; estimating probability; use it to compare phenomena to our schema and look for match
ex: judging person to fit into group based on sim to other members

Question 15

Representative Bias

Answer 15

Error resulting from numerous factors such as reliance on faulty prototypes or failure to consider statistical data; Make judgment based on what is commonly expected

Question 16

Availability Heuristic

Answer 16

Process of drawing on instances easily accessible from memory; helps us answer questions of freq, incidence, likelihood. We tend to assume events occur freq when examples readily available from memory

Question 17

Availability Bias

Answer 17

Tendency to discount relevant base-rate info and other stat facts; Persuasive power of vivid events
Make judgment based on what comes easily to our recollection

Question 18

The fundamental attribution error

- 2 sources

Answer 18

Tendency to attribute behavior of another person more to dispositional factors and minimize situational factors.
we overestimate influence of personality while underestimating situation
- 2 sources for attributional errors
1. Cognitive Biases
2. Motivational Biases

Question 19

Cognitive Biases

Answer 19

systematic mistakes resulting from limits that are inherent in our capacity to process info (bc we are not capable of perceiving everything in envrio; we automatically focus on most eye catching stimuli) we equate most salient stimuli with most influential stimuli

Question 20

Motivational Biases

- ex

Answer 20

Mistakes from our effort to satisfy own needs such as desire for self-esteem, power, control. Make us feel better even if distorting
ex: belief we can control destiny; we overestimate our controllability

Question 21

Self-fulfilling prophecy

- one cause

Answer 21

Perceivers assumptions may lead to person adopting those attributes. Our expectations of a person can actually create conditions (with or without our intent) which make them actually behave likewise
- prejudice can cause self perpetuating vicious cycle of adverse repercussions confirming our initial prejudices

Question 22

Post hoc error

Answer 22

is an example of faulty reasoning based on correlation; mistaken logic that bc B follows A, B must cause A

Question 23

Paratoxic reasoning

Answer 23

“magical thinking”; events that occur close in time are casually linked (most superstitions based on this)

Question 24

Undirectional Causation

Answer 24

relationship between 2 variables where one is the cause and other is effect

Question 25

Bidirectional Causation

Answer 25

a mutual reciprocal relation btwn 2 variables where each is both cause and effect (AKA casual loop, healthy spiral, vicious cycle)
*** This causation happens more often

Question 26

Multiple causation

Answer 26

any effect usually not result result of one cause but several concurrently

Question 27

The Naturalistic Fallacy

- types

Answer 27

error in thinking when we confuse objective descriptions with subjective value judgements; defining whats good based on frequency

1. Common=good
2. Common=bad
3. Uncommon=good
4. Uncommon=bad

Question 28

The belief perseverance effect

- how to engage in bp

Answer 28

tendency to cling stubbornly to belief even in face of contradictory evidence; when beliefs are challenged we tend to feel personally challenged
- still can engage in BP without rejecting evidence; find way to reframe info so it supports our belief