Chapter 3 Flashcards
apprenticeship
mentorship in which a learner works intensively with an experienced adult to learn how to perform complex new skills
Accommodation
responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one
assimilation
responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme
attention
focusing of mental processes on particular stimuli
authentic activity
approach to instruction similar to one students might encounter in the outside world
behaviorism
theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships, and motivation is often the result of deficit-based drives. Adherents to this perspective are called behavorists
bloom’s taxonomy
taxonomy of six cognitive processes, varying in complexity, that lessons might be designed to foster
classical conditioning
form of learning in which a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time
cognitive modeling
demonstrating how to think about as well as well as how to do a task
community of learners
class in which a teacher and students actively and collaboratively work to create a body of knowledge and help one another learn
comprehension monitoring
process of checking oneself to be sure one understands and remembers newly acquired information
concept map
diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic
conceptual change
revision of one’s understanding of a topic in response to new information
concrete operations change
Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited in concrete reality
conditioned response (CR)
response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning
conditioned stimuli
(CS) stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response through classical conditioning
conservation
realization that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement
constructivism
theoretical perspective proposing that learners construct (rather than absorb) a body of knowledge from their experiences - knowledge that may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality.
declarative knowledge
knowledge related to “what is” - that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be
developmental milestone
appearance of a new, developmentally more advanced behavior
disequilibrium
inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort
elaboration
cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know
encoding
changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily
equilibrium
state of being able to explain new events with existing schemes
formal operations stage
Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as concrete objects, and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge
guided participation
a child’s performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world
individual constructivism
theoretical perspective that focuses on how people, as individuals, construct meaning from the events around them
information processing theory
theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners mentally think about (process) new information and events and how such processes change with development
long-term memory
component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time
maturation
unfolding of genetically controlled changes as a child develops
meaningful learning
cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know
metacognition
knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes, as well as conscious attempts to engage in behaviors and thought processes that increase learning and memory
mnemonic
memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember a specific piece of information
modeling
demonstrating a behavior for another; also, observing and imitating another’s behavior
operant conditioning
form of learning in which a response increases in frequency as a result of being followed by reinforcement
overgeneralization
overly broad view of the objects or events that a concept includes
pre-operational stage
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways
prior knowledge activation
process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic
procedural knowledge
knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill)
punishment
consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows
reciprocal causation
mutual cause-and-effect relationships among environment, behavior, and personal variables as these three factors influence learning and development
rehearsal
cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it
reinforcement
act of following a response with a reinforcer
retrieval
process of “finding” information previously stored in memory
rote learning
learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it
scaffolding
support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development
scheme
In Piaget’s theory, organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment
schema
general understanding of what an object or event is typically like
Semantic knowledge
knowledge of the meanings of words and word combinations
sensitive period
genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child’s development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions
sensory register
component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (perhaps one or two seconds)
spiral curriculum
Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time
situated learning and cognition
knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited if any use in other contexts
social learning theory
theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. Initially, this perspective focused largely on stimulus-response relationships. More recently, it has come to incorporate cognitive processes as well, hence its alternative name “social cognitive theory”
social constructivism
theoretical perspective that focuses on people’s collective efforts to impose meaning on the world
stage theory
Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete periods (stage)
transfer
phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation
Unconditioned response (UCR)
response that is elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus without prior learning
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning
undergeneralization
overly narrow view of the objects or events that a concept includes
vicarious reinforcement
phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response
visual imagery
process of forming mental pictures of objects or ideas
working memory
component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently
vicarious punishment
phenomenon in which a response decreases in frequency when another person is observed being punished for that response
