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Chapter 3 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

These are structures within living cells that contain genes

A

Chromosomes

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2
Q

Chromosomes are biochemically composed of these two materials

A

DNA and proteins

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3
Q

In eukaryotes, this is the DNA-protein complex

A

Chromatin

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4
Q

Eukaryotic chromatin may also contain these

A

Non-coding RNAs

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5
Q

These two groups of organisms are prokaryotic

A

Bacteria and archaea

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6
Q

These four groups of organisms are eukaryotic

A

Protists, fungi, plants, animals

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7
Q

Do prokaryotic cells contain a nucleus?

A

No

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8
Q

What shape of chromosome do prokaryotes have?

A

Circular

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9
Q

Prokaryotic chromosomes are found in this region of the cytoplasm

A

Nucleoid

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10
Q

This encloses the cytoplasm and regulates nutrient uptake and waste excretion

A

Plasma membrane

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11
Q

What are two examples of additional cell structures that prokaryotes may have?

A

Outer membrane and flagellum

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12
Q

Eukaryotic cells have these, the major difference between them and prokaryotes

A

Membrane-bound organelles

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13
Q

This organelle contains most of the genetic material of a eukaryotic cell

A

Nucleus

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14
Q

What is the shape of eukaryotic chromosomes?

A

Linear

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15
Q

What are three other examples of membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells (other than the nucleus)?

A

Mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus

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16
Q

These organelles are responsible for ATP synthesis

A

Mitochondria

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17
Q

Do mitochondria contain their own DNA?

A

Yes

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18
Q

These organelles play a role in the degradation of macromolecules

A

Lysosomes

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19
Q

This organelle plays a role in protein modification and trafficking

A

Golgi apparatus

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20
Q

What are the two types of animal cells?

A

Somatic and germ cells

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21
Q

This type of animal cell includes body cells other than gametes (blood cells, for example)

A

Somatic cells

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22
Q

This type of animal cell includes gametes (sperm and egg cells)

A

Germ cells

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23
Q

What field of genetics involves the microscopic examination of chromosomes?

A

Cytogenetics

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24
Q

This is an organized representation of the chromosomes within a cell

A

Karyotype

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25
Q

Most eukaryotic species are this, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes

A

Diploid

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26
Q

How many total chromosomes do humans have?

A

46 (23 sets)

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27
Q

How many total chromosomes do dogs have?

A

78 (39 sets)

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28
Q

How many total chromosomes do fruit flies have?

A

8 (4 sets)

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29
Q

Members of a pair of chromosomes are called these

A

Homologs

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30
Q

What are three characteristics of a homologous pair of chromosomes?

A
  1. Nearly identical in size; 2. Have same banding/centromere location; 3. Have same genes
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31
Q

Do homologous chromosomes have to have the same alleles?

A

No

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32
Q

How much difference in DNA sequence is there in homologous chromosomes?

A

< 1%

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33
Q

This pair of chromosomes are not homologous, though they do have short regions of homology

A

Sex chromosomes (X and Y)

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34
Q

This is the physical location of a gene on a chromosome

A

Locus

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35
Q

What are two purposes of cell division?

A

Asexual reproduction and achieving multicellularity

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36
Q

This is one purpose of cell division, used by some unicellular organisms

A

Asexual reproduction

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37
Q

How often can E. coli divide?

A

Every 20 minutes

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38
Q

Prior to division, a bacterial cell does this

A

Replicates its chromosome

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39
Q

A bacterial cell divides into two daughter cells by this process

A

Binary fission

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40
Q

Does binary fission involve genetic contributions from two different gametes?

A

No

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41
Q

During binary fission, this protein recruits other proteins to create a new cell wall

A

FtsZ protein

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42
Q

Dividing eukaryotic cells progress through a series of stages known as this

A

The cell cycle

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43
Q

What three stages make up interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

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44
Q

In actively dividing cells, G1, S, and G2 stages are collectively known as this

A

Interphase

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45
Q

Can cells remain in the G0 phase for long periods of time?

A

Yes

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46
Q

A cell in the G0 phase in this state

A

Quiescent

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47
Q

Adult nerve cells are an example of this type of cell that is in a permanently quiescent state

A

Terminally differentiated cell

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48
Q

During this phase of cell division, the cell prepares to divide

A

G1 phase

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49
Q

This is the point at which a cell is committed to a cell division pathway.

A

Restriction point

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50
Q

During this phase of cell division, chromosomes are replicated

A

S phase

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51
Q

What is the term for the two copies of a replicated chromosome?

A

Chromatids

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52
Q

Chromatids are joined here to form a pair of sister chromatids

A

Centromere

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53
Q

What is another term for sister chromatids?

A

Dyad

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54
Q

This is made up of proteins attached to the centromere

A

Kinetochore

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55
Q

This is another term for a single chromatid

A

Monad

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56
Q

At the end of this phase, a cell has twice as many chromatids as it has chromosomes in the G1 phase

A

S phase

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57
Q

How many distinct chromosomes does a human cell have in the G1 phase?

A

46

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58
Q

How many pairs of sister chromatids does a human cell have at the end of the S phase?

A

46

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59
Q

In the G1 phase and late in the M phase, the term chromosome refers to the equivalent of this

A

One chromatid

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60
Q

In G2 and early in the M phase, the term chromosome refers to this

A

A pair of sister chromatids joined at the centromere

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61
Q

During this phase, the cell accumulates the materials that are necessary for nuclear and cell division

A

G2

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62
Q

Mitosis occurs in this phase of cell division

A

M phase

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63
Q

What is the primary purpose of mitosis?

A

To distribute replicated chromosomes to two daughter cells

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64
Q

What are the five phases of mitosis?

A
  1. Prophase; 2. Prometaphase; 3. Metaphase; 4. Anaphase; 5. Telophase
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65
Q

During this phase of cell division, chromosomes decondense

A

Interphase

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66
Q

Sister chromatid pairs are not seen until this phase of mitosis

A

Prophase

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67
Q

This is the attachment point of the mitotic spindle

A

Centrosome

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68
Q

Microtubules of the spindle apparatus are formed by rapid polymerization of these

A

Tubulin proteins

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69
Q

What are the three types of spindle microtubules?

A
  1. Aster microtubules; 2. Polar microtubules; 3. Kinetochore microtubules
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70
Q

This type of spindle microtubule is important for positioning of the spindle apparatus

A

Aster microtubules

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71
Q

This type of microtubule helps to push the poles of the spindle apparatus away from each other

A

Polar microtubules

72
Q

This type of microtubule attaches to the binding part of the centromere of each individual chromosome

A

Kinetochore microtubule

73
Q

What three things occur during prophase?

A
  1. Nuclear envelope dissociates into small vesicles; 2. Chromatids condense into more compact structures; 3. Centrosomes begin to separate
74
Q

What four things occur during prometaphase?

A
  1. Spindle poles form; 2. Spindle apparatus forms; 3. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the two poles; 4. The two kinetochores on a pair of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules on opposite poles
75
Q

What two things occur during metaphase?

A
  1. Pairs of sister chromatids align themselves along a plane; 2. Each pair of chromatids is attached to both poles by kinetochore microtubules
76
Q

This is the plane along which sister chromatids align themselves during metaphase

A

Metaphase plate

77
Q

What two things occur during anaphase?

A
  1. The connection holding the sister chromatids together is broken; 2. Each chromatid (now an individual chromosome) is linked to only one pole
78
Q

Do kinetochore microtubules lengthen or shorten during anaphase?

A

Shorten

79
Q

Do polar microtubules lengthen or shorten during anaphase?

A

Lengthen

80
Q

What two things occur during telophase?

A
  1. Chromosomes reach their respective poles and decondense; 2. Nuclear membrane reforms into two separate nuclei
81
Q

In most cases, mitosis is quickly followed by this process

A

Cytokinesis

82
Q

This is formed during cytokinesis in animal cells

A

Cleavage furrow

83
Q

This is formed during cytokinesis in plant cells

A

Cell plate

84
Q

What does mitosis/cytokinesis ultimately produce?

A

Two daughter cells with same number of chromosomes as mother cell

85
Q

Are the two daughter cells that result from mitotic cell division genetically identical to each other?

A

Yes

86
Q

Mitosis ensures this remains from one cell to the next

A

Genetic consistency

87
Q

The development of this relies on the repeated process of mitosis and cytokinesis

A

Multicellularity

88
Q

This is a common way for eukaryotic organisms to produce offspring

A

Sexual reproduction

89
Q

In sexual reproduction, are parents diploid or haploid?

A

Diploid

90
Q

In sexual reproduction, are gametes diploid or haploid?

A

Haploid

91
Q

In sexual reproduction, gametes fuse with each other during this process to create a new diploid individual

A

Fertilization

92
Q

Are gametes 1n or 2n?

A

1n

93
Q

Are human diploid cells 1n or 2n?

A

2n

94
Q

How many chromosomes does a human gamete have?

A

23

95
Q

During this process, haploid cells are produced from diploid cells

A

Meiosis

96
Q

Both mitosis and meiosis begin after a cell has progressed through this phase of the cell cycle

A

Interphase

97
Q

What are the two divisions of meiosis?

A

Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2

98
Q

Each meiotic division is subdivided into these five parts

A
  1. Prophase; 2. Prometaphase; 3. Metaphase; 4. Anaphase; 5. Telophase
99
Q

What are the five stages of prophase 1 of meiosis?

A
  1. Leptotene; 2. Zygotene; 3. Pachytene; 4. Diplotene; 5. Diakinesis
100
Q

What happens during the leptotene stage of meiosis 1 prophase?

A

Replicated chromosomes condense

101
Q

What happens during the zygotene stage of meiosis 1 prophase?

A

Synapsis begin to form a bivalent

102
Q

What happens during the pachytene stage of meiosis 1 prophase?

A

A bivalent forms and crossing over occurs

103
Q

What happens during the diplotene stage of meiosis 1 prophase?

A

Synaptonemal complex dissociates

104
Q

What happens during the diakinesis stage of meiosis 1 prophase?

A

Nuclear membrane breaks apart, ending prophase 1

105
Q

Meiosis 1 is followed by what two events?

A

Cytokinesis and then meiosis 2

106
Q

What is the primary difference between meiosis 2 and mitosis?

A

Meiosis 2 begins with half the chromatids of mitosis

107
Q

How many diploid daughter cells does mitosis produce?

A

2

108
Q

How many haploid daughter cells does meiosis produce?

A

4

109
Q

Does mitosis produce genetically identical daughter cells?

A

Yes

110
Q

Does meiosis produce genetically identical daughter cells?

A

No

111
Q

This is the process of making haploid gametes

A

Gametogenesis

112
Q

Some simple eukaryotic species are this, meaning they produce morphologically similar gametes

A

Isogamous

113
Q

What are two examples of isogamous eukaryotes?

A

Many species of fungi and algae

114
Q

Most eukaryotic species are this, meaning they produce morphologically different gametes (sperm and egg)

A

Heterogamous

115
Q

This is the production of sperm

A

Spermatogenesis

116
Q

What two cells are produced by the mitotic division of a diploid spermatogonial cell?

A

A spermatogonial cell and a primary spermatocyte

117
Q

Which of the two cells mitotically produced by a spermatogonial cell progresses through meiosis 1 and 2?

A

Primary spermatocyte

118
Q

What are the two components of a sperm cell’s structure?

A

Flagellum and head

119
Q

The head of a sperm cell contains this

A

Haploid nucleus

120
Q

The head of a sperm cell is capped by this

A

Acrosome

121
Q

The acrosome of a sperm cell contains these to enable the sperm to penetrate the protective layers of the egg

A

Digestive enzymes

122
Q

This is the production of egg cells

A

Oogenesis

123
Q

Early in development, these produce diploid primary oocytes

A

Diploid oogonia

124
Q

In humans, how many primary oocytes are produced per ovary before birth?

A

~ 1 million

125
Q

Primary oocytes remain arrested in this phase until the female is sexually mature

A

Prophase 1

126
Q

At sexual maturity, primary oocytes are periodically activated to progress through this process

A

Meiosis 1

127
Q

How many cells per meiosis becomes an egg from a primary oocyte?

A

1

128
Q

What two unequally sized haploid cells are produced by meiosis 1 of primary oocytes?

A

A large secondary oocyte and a small polar body

129
Q

Which product of primary oocyte meiosis 1 enters meiosis 2?

A

Secondary oocyte

130
Q

The secondary oocyte is released into this structure in the process of ovulation

A

Oviduct

131
Q

What are the two products of secondary oocyte fertilization?

A

Haploid egg and second polar body

132
Q

These two things fuse to create the diploid nucleus of a new individual

A

Haploid egg and sperm nucleus

133
Q

Are the divisions in oogenesis symmetric or asymmetric?

A

Asymmetric

134
Q

Divisions in oogenesis produce these, containing very little cytoplasm

A

Polar bodies

135
Q

What are the two generations that plant species cycle between?

A

Gametophyte and sporophyte

136
Q

This is the haploid generation of a plant

A

Gametophyte

137
Q

This is the diploid generation of a plant

A

Sporophyte

138
Q

Sporophytes go through meiosis to produce these haploid cells

A

Spores

139
Q

Spores divide by this process to produce gametophytes

A

Mitosis

140
Q

Sporophytes go through this process to produce haploid spores

A

Meiosis

141
Q

In this type of plants, spores develop into gametophytes that have large numbers of cells

A

Simpler plants (i.e. mosses)

142
Q

In this type of plants, spores develop into gametophytes that only have a few cells

A

Flowering plants

143
Q

Where are gametophytes contained within sporophyte flowering plants?

A

Within flower structure

144
Q

This plant generation is what we consider the ‘plant’ in flowering plants

A

Sporophyte

145
Q

This sporophyte structure produces the male gametophyte

A

Anther

146
Q

This sporophyte structure produces the female gametophyte

A

Ovary

147
Q

How many microspores does the anther produce through meiosis?

A

4

148
Q

Mitosis of microspores produces these two types of cell

A

Tube cell and generative cell

149
Q

In flowering plants, the microspore differentiates into this

A

Pollen grain

150
Q

How many megaspores does the ovary produce through meiosis?

A

4

151
Q

How many of the four megaspores produced by the plant ovary degenerate?

A

3

152
Q

The surviving megaspore produced by the plant ovary yields an embryo sac with how many cells?

A

7

153
Q

Flowering plants have this type of fertilization

A

Double fertilization

154
Q

In double fertilization, one sperm fertilizes the egg while a second sperm unites with the central cell to produce this

A

Endosperm

155
Q

Double fertilization ensures the endosperm will only develop when this happens

A

When an egg cell has been fertilized

156
Q

What are the two steps following fertilization in flowering plants?

A
  1. Ovule develops into seed; 2. Surrounding ovary develops into fruit that encloses one or more seeds
157
Q

This theory describes how the transmission of chromosomes account for Mendelian patterns of inheritance

A

Chromosome theory of inheritance

158
Q

The chromosome theory of inheritance resulted from what three lines of scientific inquiry?

A
  1. Analysis of trait transmission from parent to offspring; 2. Inquiry into material basis of heredity; 3. Microscopic examination of mitosis, meiosis and fertilization
159
Q

What are the five fundamental principles of the chromosome theory of inheritance?

A
  1. Chromosomes contain the genetic material; 2. Chromosomes are replicated and passed from parent to offspring; 3. The nuclei of most eukaryotic cells contain chromosomes in homologous pairs; 4. During meiosis, each homolog segregates into one of two daughter nuclei and nonhomologous chromosomes segregate independently; 5. Each parent contributes one set of chromosomes to offspring
160
Q

This Mendel’s law can be explained by the homologous pairing and segregation of chromosomes during meiosis

A

Mendel’s law of segregation

161
Q

This Mendel’s law can be explained by the relative behavior of different chromosomes during meiosis

A

Mendel’s law of independent assortment

162
Q

In many animal species, these play a role in sex determination

A

Chromosomes

163
Q

In some reptiles and fish, sex is determined by this

A

Temperature

164
Q

What are the sex chromosomes in some insect species?

A

Males X0 and females XX

165
Q

This determines maleness in insects that use X0/XX

A

Ratio between X chromosomes and number of sets of autosomes

166
Q

Birds and some fish use this sex chromosome designation

A

Males ZZ; Females ZW

167
Q

Bees use this sex determination system

A

Haplodiploid sex determination

168
Q

Are male bees haploid or diploid?

A

Haploid

169
Q

Are female bees haploid or diploid?

A

Diploid

170
Q

Male bees are also known as these

A

Drones

171
Q

Male bees are produced from these

A

Unfertilized haploid eggs

172
Q

Female bees make up these two classifications of bees

A

Worker and queen bees

173
Q

Female bees are produced from these

A

Fertilized eggs

174
Q

Which scientist confirmed the chromosome theory of inheritance?

A

Thomas Hunt Morgan

175
Q

Thomas Hunt Morgan tried to induce mutations in this species in his studies

A

Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)

176
Q

What are three treatments done on fruit flies by Thomas Hunt Morgan?

A
  1. Rearing in dark; 2. X-rays; 3. Radium
177
Q

Thomas Hunt Morgan studied the inheritance of this fruit fly trait in particular

A

White-eyed trait

Genetics (9 decks)

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